Psych Exam 3, Ch 11: Development

Two challenges when studying development

-multi-age assessment measures
-research method for making comparisons across a lifespan

cross-sectional design

compares participants for different ages directly to one another at one point in time
(ex analyze 2,6,9 year olds doing same task)

importance of cross-sectional design

help understand which abilities are developing at certain points in the lifespan
(ex 9 year old can do task but 2 year old can't-> ability develops after 2 years)

how is cohort effect a disadvantage of cross-sectional design (development research design)?

biological explanation cannot be the only explanation -> harder to prove what causes behavior/ability

cohort effect

an effect of difference due to members of an age group (age cohort) sharing a common set of life experiences

longitudinal design

method to study development; tracks individuals at diff time points and looks for differences across those time points

(ex track 20 year olds for 10 years)

disadvantages of cross-sectional development research method?

cohort effect

disadvantages of longitudinal design (type of development research method)?

-time intensive
-attrition (people withdrawing from the study before its finished)

sequential design (development research design)

combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs; tracks multiple ages across multiple time points

germinal stage

first 2 weeks of zygote's life
-cells multiply rapidly

blastocyst

called 2 weeks AFTER conception
-implants in uterus

embryonic stage

called 2-8 weeks after conception
-embryo forms
-placenta begins to form

endoderm layer forms from the ____ and ________ __________

gut and digestive organs

mesoderm layer forms from ______ _______ and ________ __________

skeletal system and voluntary muscles

what does ectoderm layer form into?

nervous systems cells and outer skin

how cells develop differently given their identical genetic info?

environmental influences (neighboring cells) determine on/off of genes

fetal stage

called 9 weeks after conception
until birth
-sensory system develops

when do fetus's ears function and respond to similar sound (mostly mother's)?

17th week after conception

which develops quicker, hearing or seeing capabilities?

seeing

babies eyes closed until 26 weeks after conception

full-term

37 weeks after conception
-babies are ready to come out

When does the neural tube form?

1 month after conception

neural tube

babies early neural structure; has 3 parts
-1st develops into brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord
-2nd develops into midbrain
-3rd develops into forebrain

grows rapidly

neural migration

glia create guide wires that move the newly created neurons to appropriate positions in the brain

after, neurons organize into layers (1st to arrive is innermost)

teratogens

environmental agents that can interfere with development

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

reflexes

automatic patterns of motor responses that are triggered by specific types of sensory stimulation

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

motor development

changing in developing child's ability to coordinate bodily movements

general rules of motor development

1. motor skill tend to emerge in sequence from head -> to feet

2. motor skills emerge from center of the body -> outward

what affects timing of motor development?

genetics and experience

identical twins often gain new motor skills around the same time

massaging and stretching legs causes earlier walking

cognitive development

all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

associated w Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

believed cognitive development is active and mostly self-driven

schemas

mental structures that represent our experiences

Piaget's 2 key processes that align new experiences w understanding of the world

1st. use assimilation (use existing schema to understand new experience)

2nd. (usually at the same time) use accommodation (revising schema w/ new experience)

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Children actively construct their knowledge of the world through their direct interactions with the physical world

4 stages:
sensorimotor stage-> preoperational stage-> concrete operational stage
-> formal operational stage

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years; develops knowledge through senses

DOES:
-differentiate self from objects

DOESN'T:
-use symbols
-use language
-have object permanence

exp hidden search task

exp object permanence in sensorimotor stage

baby can't see giraffe toy-> doesn't think it exists

preoperational stage

2-7 years; uses symbols but can't see from multiple perspectives

DOES:
-use language
-imagination

DOESN'T:
-can't use multiple schema at once
-conservation
-overcome egocentrism

exp conservation task

exp preoperational kids can't think conservation of liquid

-kids think same liquid in tall glass is more than the small glass

egocentricism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

(ex false belief task, playing hide and seek badly)

exp false belief task

egocentrism in preoperational stage
-adults can infer Sally's beliefs but kids can't
-kids know ball's in box and assume Sally knows
too

concrete operational stage

7-12 years; can use multiple perspectives and imagination, can't think abstractly

DOES:
-think logically about concrete objects
-achieves conservation
-able to manipulate multiple schema

DOESN'T:
-abstract thinking
-scientific thinking

Formal operational stage

12 years and above; able to reason about abstract problems and hypothetical questions

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

critiques of piaget's theory

-underestimate children's abilities
-oversimplify cognitive development process

correct things about piaget's theory

-constructivism
-questions about children's thinking

process to organize nervous system

-synaptogenesis (creation of new synapses)
-synaptic pruning (trimming of unnecessary synapses)
-myelination of axons (insulating axons w myelin)

-development starts in back and moves forward
-prefrontal slow bc sys 2 complex thinking

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

wisconsin test allows us to question if kids are
like adults w prefrontal damage
to test this hyp-> Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (Wisconsin but for young kids)
-> same results as Wisconsin- kids perseverate

when do children start to recognize facial features?

4-7 months of age

why babies use social referencing?

come into new and unfamiliar situations where need guidance

use adult's facial expressions as source of info for how to react

what does babies development of separation anxiety (away from parents) tell us?

babies form attachment to the caregiver- a strong, enduring, emotional bond

imprinting

attachment mechanism (in ducklings): duckling bonds and follows first object that moves after birth

experiment to test emotional attachement mechanism in humans

raised infant monkeys with 2 artificial mothers

1 w comfortable body (contact comfort)

2 w attached feeding bottle (nourishment)

-> preferred comfortable mother

conclusion: comfort and NOT nutrition is crucial for human attachment

strange situation test

understand differences and consequences in different attachments children form

1 year old child and parent in room w new/cool toys, parent goes in an out and child's response is monitored

conclusion:
2 patterns of attachment:
-secure attachment (use caregiver as secure base + reassured when they return)
-insecure attachment (doesn't use caregiver as secure base + isn't reassured when they return)

types of insecure attachment

avoidant attachment: distant when caregiver there + appear calm but actually freaking out (even when caregiver returns)

ambivalent attachment: v close to caregiver + quiet when leave + when come back, act happy at first but dislikes reassurance

longterm effects of child's attachment style

securely attached = BEST; socially appealing, socially skilled, master language and other tasks

temperament

characteristic pattern of emotion and behavior

evident from an early age and determine by genetics

relation between temperament and attachment style

related

irritable temperament-> inc likelihood insecure attachment

childhood

end of infancy (2 years) -> to start of adolescence

gain new cognitive capabilities

symbolic representation

cog capability children develop; use of words, sounds, gestures, visual images, ore objects to represent other things

operations

imagining how things might be different than they are, or predicting consequences

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

theory of the mind

young children lack this

understanding that we and other people have minds, and they represent the world in diff ways and explain how people behave

sociocultural view of development

Lev Vygotsky's proposal that the child's mind grows through social interaction with knowledgeable others

adults provide scaffolding -> helps children step to higher levels of thinking

scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

happens a lot through language

4 parenting styles

authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, disengaged

authoritarian parenting style

parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child

permissive parenting style

parents make few demands and rarely use punishment, warm and indulgent to child's wants

authoritative parenting style

parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view

disengaged parenting style

low demandingness, low responsiveness

best parenting style

Authoritative. "I need you to do this."

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

onset of adolescence in western cultures

puberty (sexual maturation)

puberty causes changes in 2 places

-primary sex characteristics (sex body structures (ex genetalia, ovaries))

-secondary sex characteristics (nonreproductive body structures (ex voices, body hair, torso))

preconventional stage

a stage of moral development

before age of 9

focuses on self-interest and obeying rules to avoid punishment or gain material rewards

conventional stage

a stage of moral development

by early adolescence

less self-focused and more focused on caring for others and upholding social roles and rules

postconventional stage

a stage of moral development

later adolescnece

bc of abstract reasoning, moral judgement come from sense of broad principles or ideals (human rights and equality)

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

How do we know parenting really matters?

parents can improve child outcomes by changing parenting styles

advantages of early-maturing boys

being:
-bigger
-stronger
-improved social status
-more likely to be successful athlete

disadvantages of early-maturing in boys

greater
-impulsivity
-delinquency
-alcohol use

disadvantages of early-maturing in girls

greater risk for psychological probs (ex social anxiety and fear of others views)
-> linger and impact future relationships

less severe risk if stable home, supportive and close relationship w/ parents

what happens to the brain during puberty?

rapid changes

-right before: burst of synaptic growth
-2nd wave: synaptic pruning

happens primarily in prefrontal cortex but faster in limbic system->teenagers have increased reward sensitivity (perception of rewards is amplified)

consequences of limbic system changing faster than prefrontal in teenage years

teenagers have increased reward sensitivity (perception of rewards is amplified)
+
slow developing prefrontal cortex
= impulsive

what moral stage do those who engage in criminal behavior usually have?

lower moral stages (conventional and preconventional)

problems with moral development stages

-reflect male more than female reasoning
(females placed lower bc place more value on compassion and preservation of relationships)

-doesn't reflect cross-culturally (less technological societies placed lower bc think ab concrete factors)

who is happier by parenthood men or women?

men bc of high demands biology and society place on mothers

advantages of old brain vs younger brain

-more gC (crystallized intelligence)
-more balanced use of both sides of brain
-although shrinking, more activity frontal lobes

how are early life experiences predictive of successful aging?

experiences that protect the body's overall health
-nutrition
-exercise in teenage years

experiences that develop a strong foundation of intellectual functioning
-higher education
-more complex jobs

how do later life experiences shape the aging process?

-exercise
-intellectual social activities

socioemotional selectivity theory

as age become more selective about their social networks

b/c place a high value on emotional satisfaction, spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships.

why is gender a highly influential social category?

shapes how ppl perceive themselves and others (bc of cultural norms)

biosocial construction model

theory that emphasizes that evolution selected for human females and males to be flexible and adaptive to environmental variation and change, and that "gendered" behavior influences biology

social structural approach to gender relations

gender is a hierarchy and affects how women, men, and other genders perceive themselves and others

aggressive cognition

younger men with more "fragile" (extrinsically pressured) masculine identities more susceptible to masculinity threats -> resulted in compensatory aggression

bias against masculine gender nonconformity

under threat, straight men with more fragile masculine identities were esp likely to perceive gay men as more feminine-> resulted in bias against other men who were gender nonconforming

development of fragile masculinities

only after puberty do boys show same effect as young adult men
where pressure-> resulted in aggression after masculinity threat

expectancy-discrepancy-threat model of masculine identity

expectancy (norms)
->
discrepancy (extrinsically pressured (fragile) masculine identity)
->
threat (compensatory stereotypical responses)

ex of children cognition

kids playing hide-and-seek badly

constructivism

Piaget's view on development;
knowledge ab world is ACTIVELY built w/ prior knowledge and new knowledge

-schemas to understand (assimilation) + new experiences alter schema (accomodation)

-kids= little scientists