Psych 105 - Stress and Health

Stress DEFN

Stress is defined as both a physical and psychological response that occurs when an individual encounters internal or external stressors. These stressors can vary from daily hassles, major life changes, to chronic issues. Understanding this definition helps us comprehend how stress can impact both mental health (like anxiety and depression) and physical health (like cardiovascular problems or weakened immune responses)

Perceived Control

Having perceived control can significantly reduce stress levels, even if a person does not actively take steps to change their situation. This sense of control affects how individuals cope with stressors in their lives, leading to better psychological outcomes.

Role of Telomeres

Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes to prevent them from deteriorating or sticking to each other during cell division.

However, chronic stress accelerates telomere shortening by increasing cortisol levels, which inhibits telomerase (the enzyme that helps maintain telomere length). Shortened telomeres are linked to aging and age-related diseases.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Alarm: Immediate fight-or-flight response (increased heart rate, adrenaline).

Resistance: the body maintains a heightened physiological response to cope with the stressor. However, non-essential functions (e.g., digestion, reproduction, and immune response) are suppressed to conserve energy

Exhaustion: Energy is depleted, leading to burnout and health issues. The Exhaustion phase (Phase 3) of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) occurs when the body’s energy reserves are depleted due to prolonged stress. This phase can lead to:

• Burnout, fatigue, and weakened immune function

• Increased risk of illness and disease

• Cognitive impairment and emotional instability

What is Lazarus’ Model of Stress and Coping

Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Model explains how we experience and respond to stress. It has two key stages, Primary and Secondary Appraisal

Role of Glutocorticoids

Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, are stress hormones released by the HPA axis. Their primary function is to help the body manage stress, but they also have negative effects when stress is chronic:

• Short-term: Help mobilize energy, reduce inflammation.

• Long-term: Suppress immune function, making the body more vulnerable to illness.

This explains why chronic stress increases susceptibility to colds and other illnesses.

Primary Appraisal

Primary appraisal in Lazarus’ model of stress and coping refers to evaluating whether a stressor is a threat, challenge, or irrelevant. This initial assessment determines how we perceive the stressor:

• Threat → Potential harm or loss (e.g., "This exam might ruin my grade").

• Challenge → Opportunity for growth (e.g., "This exam is tough, but I can improve from it").

• Irrelevant → No impact on well-being.

Secondary Appraisal

comes after primary appraisal and involves determining if you have the resources to cope with the stressor.

• Secondary Appraisal → "Can I cope with this?"

  • If resources seem sufficient, stress is lower.

  • If resources seem insufficient, stress is higher.

This model emphasizes that stress is not just about the situation itself, but how we interpret it.

Tend and Befriend

The tend-and-befriend response is an alternative to the fight-or-flight response, primarily driven by oxytocin. It promotes social bonding and caregiving behaviors in response to stress.

• Tend → Caring for others, especially offspring.

• Befriend → Seeking social support to cope with stress.

This response is not exclusive to women, though it is more common due to hormonal differences. Unlike avoidance-based coping, it encourages proactive social interaction.

Discrimination Related Stress

Discrimination-related stress contributes to health disparities, particularly in marginalized groups. This occurs because:

• Chronic stress weakens the immune system and increases cortisol levels.

• It is linked to higher rates of cardiovascular disease, anxiety, and depression.

• Discrimination can lead to unhealthy coping mechanisms (e.g., substance use, avoidance).

• It affects access to healthcare due to biases and systemic inequalities.

Role of Cortisol (Glucocortisoid)

Cortisol is a key hormone released by the adrenal glands during the stress response. It plays an essential role in managing stress, but chronic release of cortisol can have harmful effects, such as:

• Weakened immune system

• Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases

• Memory and cognitive problems

Repressive Coping

Repressive coping involves creating distance from the stressor by ignoring or avoiding it. This method works in the short term but can lead to long-term difficulties if the stressor re-emerges

Biofeedback’s Role in Aiding Stress

Biofeedback involves using electronic devices to help individuals gain control over physiological functions that are usually involuntary, such as heart rate, muscle tension, and skin temperature. This method helps individuals learn how to manage stress by becoming more aware of and controlling their body's responses.

Prolonged Exposure - Rational Coping

Prolonged exposure therapy involves gradually confronting reminders of the traumatic event in a controlled way, which helps to reduce the emotional charge and fear associated with the trauma. This approach allows individuals to process the event in a safe environment and gradually diminish the intensity of their fear. It involves actively confronting and processing the stressor (such as trauma) rather than avoiding or repressing it.

Sickness Response

The sickness response refers to the body's natural reaction to stress aimed at promoting recovery, often involving symptoms like fatigue, aches, or fever as a part of the body’s healing mechanism. This process is mediated by cytokines and the activation of the vagus nerve, which helps in recovery from stressors or illnesses.

• Cytokines: These are immune system molecules that help regulate inflammation and the body's response to infection or injury. During the sickness response, cytokines are released to promote the feeling of illness (fatigue, malaise, etc.), helping the body conserve energy for healing and recovery. (include macrophage, lymphocyte, fibroblast. general term for cells upkeeping immune system and recovery)

• Vagus Nerve: The vagus nerve plays a central role in the sickness response by transmitting signals from the immune system to the brain. Cytokines can stimulate the vagus nerve, which then helps to induce the physical symptoms of illness (such as fatigue, fever, and pain sensitivity), which are part of the body’s effort to recover and heal.

Psychoneuroimmunology

Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between the mind, nervous system, and immune system, focusing on how psychological processes (like stress) can influence immune responses and overall health.

Stress-Inoculation Training - Reframing Method/Rational Coping

This is a coping method that focuses on reframing stressful situations positively, building resilience over time to help manage stress better. To build resilience by reinterpreting stressors as challenges is the goal of stress inoculation training. This technique helps individuals develop coping strategies by encouraging them to view stressors as challenges they can overcome, rather than as insurmountable threats.

Rational Coping

Rational coping is a cognitive-behavioral approach to stress management that involves actively confronting a stressor rather than avoiding or suppressing it. It typically follows a three-step process:

1. Acceptance: Acknowledge and accept the stressor or fear without denial.

2. Exposure: Gradually or repeatedly confront the stressor or fear in a controlled manner to reduce its impact.

3. Understanding: Gain a deeper understanding of the stressor or fear, putting it in perspective to reduce its perceived threat and emotional charge.

This method is effective in managing stress and anxiety and is particularly useful in overcoming traumatic experiences or phobias.

Interaction Between Cytokines and Vagus Nerve

• When the body experiences stress or illness, cytokines are released to promote an inflammatory response. These cytokines activate the vagus nerve, which, in turn, helps to regulate the inflammation by signaling anti-inflammatory processes to balance the immune response.

• This is why cytokines and the vagus nerve play important roles in the body's sickness response, helping to balance immune activation and inflammation during illness or stress.

Difficulties of Following Regimen of Care (3 Factors)

Pain, inconvenience, and frequency of treatment are factors that can reduce the effectiveness of a medical treatment regimen. If treatments are painful, inconvenient, or require frequent administration, patients may be less likely to follow the regimen properly, which can hinder their recovery.

Mindfulness Meditation - Rational Coping

Mindfulness meditation encourages a state of focused awareness, which helps individuals regulate their emotions. Over time, practicing mindfulness has been shown to improve emotional regulation by allowing individuals to become less reactive to emotional stimuli and more in control of their responses.

Physiological Response to Stress

The fight-or-flight response is activated by the autonomic nervous system in reaction to stress, triggering changes in the body like increased heart rate, respiration, and energy levels, all aimed at preparing the body to deal with a threat.

Chronic Stress

Chronic stress occurs when an individual is exposed to prolonged or repeated stressors. This continuous strain can lead to a variety of health problems, including anxiety, depression, and physical illnesses such as heart disease.

Placebo Effect

The placebo effect occurs when a person experiences a real improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment with no therapeutic value—purely because they believe it will help. This belief can trigger actual physiological changes, including reduced pain and brain activity changes in pain-related areas, and create endorphins. It's a powerful demonstration of how expectation and mindset can influence health.

Personality Traits and Stress

• Optimism: Optimistic individuals tend to experience better health outcomes as they engage in healthier behaviors and have a more positive outlook, which can buffer against stress 23.

• Hardiness: This trait encompasses commitment, control, and challenge, equipping individuals to cope with stress more effectively. Those high in hardiness view stressors as challenges rather than threats, which helps reduce the negative impact of stress 23.

• Type A Behavior Pattern: Characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and hostility, this personality type is linked to a higher likelihood of stress-related health issues, such as heart disease 6.

• Overall, resilient and adaptable personality traits can mitigate the impact of stress, while negative traits may exacerbate it.

The Sick Role

The "sick role" concept refers to the social expectations and behaviors associated with being ill. It encompasses both rights and obligations for individuals who are classified as sick. Here are the key aspects:

1. Rights:

• Individuals in the sick role are allowed to withdraw from normal social roles and responsibilities. They have the right to receive care and support from others.

2. Obligations:

• Those in the sick role are expected to seek help and cooperate with medical advice. They should also work towards recovery and not prolong their illness unnecessarily.

3. Malingering:

• Malingering refers to feigning illness to achieve personal gain, which is only feasible for certain conditions. It arises when the benefits of being perceived as sick outweigh the costs of not participating in regular activities 17.

Overall, the sick role outlines a social framework that influences how society responds to illness and the expectations placed on those who are unwell.

Mechanistic Dehumanization

Mechanistic dehumanization refers to the process of viewing individuals as lacking human qualities and instead perceiving them in a more mechanical or object-like manner. This concept is significant in healthcare settings as it can affect patient-practitioner interactions. Here are the key points related to mechanistic dehumanization:

1. Reduction to Body Parts or Ailments: Patients may be treated as mere bodies or specific health conditions rather than as whole individuals with emotions, experiences, and personal histories. This reductionist view can diminish personalized care and empathy 20.

2. Denial of Agency: Mechanistic dehumanization often involves the denial of patients' autonomy or ability to make decisions regarding their care, which can lead to feelings of powerlessness among patients.

3. Impact on Empathy: When healthcare providers engage in mechanistic dehumanization, it can lead to reduced empathy but decreased burnout among practitioners. This lack of empathy can adversely affect the quality of patient care.

In summary, mechanistic dehumanization is a harmful perspective that can diminish the humanity of both patients and healthcare providers, leading to negative outcomes in medical settings.

Telomerase

Telomerase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the maintenance of telomeres, which are the protective caps located at the ends of chromosomes. These telomeres are essential for preserving the integrity of genetic information during cell division. Here are the key points regarding telomerase:

1. Function: Telomerase adds repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of telomeres, effectively lengthening them. This action counteracts the natural shortening of telomeres that occurs with each cell division, thus allowing cells to replicate more times than they normally would 23.

2. Role in Aging: Over time, with repeated cell divisions, telomeres can become critically short, leading to cellular aging and eventual cell death (senescence). Chronic stress has been linked to shorter telomere length and reduced telomerase activity, which may accelerate the aging process 23.

3. Implications in Health: Telomerase activity is observed in certain types of cells, such as stem cells and cancer cells. In cancer, the reactivation of telomerase allows cells to continue dividing uncontrollably, highlighting its dual role in both healthy aging and tumorigenesis 23.

In summary, telomerase is a vital enzyme for maintaining telomere length and cellular longevity, with significant implications for aging and cancer biology.

Type A Behaviour Pattern

Type A behavior pattern is characterized by a set of traits that are primarily associated with increased competitiveness, urgency, and hostility. Here are the key characteristics and implications of Type A behavior:

1. Characteristics:

• Competitiveness: Individuals with Type A behavior tend to be highly competitive, striving to achieve success in various aspects of life, including work, sports, and social situations.

• Time Urgency: They often feel a constant sense of urgency, leading to a need to accomplish tasks quickly and efficiently. This may result in frustration when tasks take longer than expected.

• Hostility and Aggression: Type A individuals may exhibit hostility or aggressive behaviors, particularly in competitive or high-stress situations. This can manifest as impatience, irritability, or frustration toward others.

• High Achievement Orientation: They typically set high goals and standards for themselves and are motivated to achieve these goals, often leading to a strong work ethic.

2. Health Implications:

• Research has suggested that individuals exhibiting Type A behavior may have a higher risk for stress-related health issues, including cardiovascular diseases. The combination of stress, hostility, and aggression can contribute to chronic stress responses in the body.

• Type A behavior has been linked to higher levels of cortisol and other stress hormones, potentially leading to negative health outcomes over time 16.

Type B Behaviour Pattern

Type B behavior pattern is characterized by a more relaxed, easygoing, and less competitive approach to life. Here are the key characteristics and implications of Type B behavior:

1. Characteristics:

• Relaxed Attitude: Individuals with Type B behavior tend to be more laid-back and calm, often taking a more leisurely approach to tasks and responsibilities.

• Low Competitiveness: They are generally less driven by competition and do not feel the same intense need to achieve or outperform others that Type A individuals often do.

• Reduced Time Urgency: Type B individuals do not feel a constant pressure to complete tasks quickly and are more likely to be patient and tolerant in various situations.

• Emotional Stability: They usually handle stress with greater ease and are less likely to engage in aggressive or hostile behaviors when faced with challenges.

2. Health Implications:

• Because of their relaxed nature, Type B individuals often experience lower levels of stress and anxiety. This can contribute to overall better psychological and physical health compared to their Type A counterparts. They are less likely to suffer from stress-related illnesses, including cardiovascular issues 2.

• Their approach to life may foster healthier relationships and social interactions, as they tend to be more tolerant and understanding.

Sources of Stress

1. Major Life Events:

• Significant life changes, such as marriage, divorce, relocation, career changes, or the death of a loved one, are often packed with stressors. These events can trigger a high level of stress due to their magnitude and the adjustments they require 24.

2. Chronic Stressors:

• Ongoing stressors include long-term challenges such as financial difficulties, work-related stress, chronic health issues, and prolonged caregiving responsibilities. These stressors can lead to sustained pressure that negatively impacts health 12.

3. Daily Hassles:

• Routine daily pressures, like traffic congestion, work deadlines, or family responsibilities, can accumulate over time and contribute to feelings of stress. These minor irritations can significantly affect overall well-being when they occur frequently 24.

4. Environmental Stressors:

• Factors such as noise pollution, overcrowding, and exposure to environmental dangers (e.g., crime, natural disasters) can lead to increased stress levels. The perception of danger or discomfort in one’s living environment can impact mental health 24.

5. Physical Stressors:

• Physical health issues, lack of sleep, poor nutrition, and lack of exercise can all contribute to stress. When the body is under physical strain, it can exacerbate feelings of stress and anxiety 12.

6. Social Stressors:

• Relationships with family, friends, colleagues, and social networks can be a source of stress. Conflicts, misunderstandings, and social obligations can contribute to emotional strain and anxiety 24.

7. Perceived Control:

• The perception of control (or lack thereof) in stressful situations can significantly impact an individual’s stress levels. Feeling that one has control over circumstances, even if they do not act on it, can help reduce stress 24.

8. Workplace Stress:

• Job-related stressors, including workload, job security, and interpersonal issues with colleagues or management, are common sources of stress. High-pressure work environments can lead to burnout and decreased overall health 2.

9. Positive Events:

• Interestingly, not all stressors are negative; even positive life events (e.g., getting married, having a child, or graduating) can be significant sources of stress due to the changes and adjustments required 16.

Fight or Flight Response

Fight-or-Flight Response

1. Initiation:

• The fight-or-flight response is triggered by the hypothalamus in the brain when a threat is perceived. This activation leads to a cascade of physiological changes in the body.

2. Sympathetic Nervous System:

• The signal from the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which is part of the autonomic nervous system. This system prepares the body for rapid action.

3. Hormonal Release:

• The adrenal medulla (a part of the adrenal glands) is stimulated to release two key hormones: norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline). Both of these hormones play critical roles in the fight-or-flight response 12.

Role of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Role of Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

1. Norepinephrine:

• Function: Norepinephrine primarily serves as a neurotransmitter in the brain and throughout the autonomic nervous system. It increases alertness, arousal, and the speed of reaction.

• Effects: When released, it causes the following physiological responses:

• Increases heart rate and blood pressure.

• Dilates blood vessels in major muscle groups to redirect blood flow.

• Enhances the availability of glucose and oxygen to the muscles.

• Increases focus and attention, helping the individual respond quickly to the threat.

2. Epinephrine:

• Function: Epinephrine functions both as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It has a more widespread impact on the body compared to norepinephrine.

• Effects: The release of epinephrine leads to:

• An increase in heart rate and strength of heart contractions, further raising blood pressure.

• Dilation of airways, allowing for increased oxygen intake.

• Increased metabolic rate, providing more energy to muscles.

• Breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver (glycogenolysis), supplying quick energy.

• Enhanced clarity and speed of thought, which is crucial in a crisis situation.

Summary of Physical Changes

• Increased cardiovascular output: Rapid heartbeat and increased blood pressure ensure that more blood (and thus oxygen) reaches vital organs and muscles.

• Rapid respiration: Enhanced breathing rates increase oxygen supply.

• Improved energy availability: Glucose is swiftly mobilized, providing an immediate energy source for muscular action.

• Heightened senses: Senses become sharper, allowing for better situational awareness.

These combined physiological changes enable an individual to respond swiftly and effectively to danger, whether that be through fighting or fleeing. However, it is important to note that chronic activation of this stress response due to ongoing stressors can have negative health consequences, impacting the immune system, cardiovascular health, and overall well-being 3, 6.

Role of Endorphins in Aerobic Excercises

Endorphins play a significant role in the effects of aerobic exercise on the body and mind. Here’s an overview of their functions and benefits:

What are Endorphins?

Endorphins are a group of hormones produced by the body, primarily in the brain and the pituitary gland. They act as neurotransmitters and are closely associated with the body's response to pain, stress, and pleasure.

Role of Endorphins in Aerobic Exercise

1. Pain Relief:

• Endorphins are often referred to as "natural painkillers." During aerobic exercise, the body releases endorphins to help alleviate discomfort that may arise from physical exertion. This can lead to an increased tolerance for pain and discomfort during workouts.

2. Mood Enhancement:

• Endorphins contribute to the phenomenon often referred to as the "runner's high," a euphoric feeling that many people experience during or after prolonged aerobic activity. This mood enhancement is linked to a reduction in feelings of anxiety, depression, and stress, leading to an improved overall emotional state 17.

3. Stress Reduction:

• Engaging in aerobic exercise increases endorphin levels, which can help to reduce stress and promote relaxation. This is crucial as chronic stress has detrimental effects on physical and mental health. Regular aerobic activity can help mitigate these impacts by promoting better mental health through endorphin release 17.

4. Improved Energy:

• The release of endorphins during aerobic exercise can enhance feelings of energy and vitality. This can result in improved performance not only in physical activities but also in daily tasks.

5. Enhanced Immune Function:

• There is some evidence to suggest that moderate exercise, which stimulates endorphin release, can positively affect the immune system. By reducing stress and promoting overall well-being, endorphins may contribute to better immune responses, helping the body defend against illness 11.

6. Long-term Benefits:

• Regular aerobic exercise elevates endorphin levels consistently over time. This can lead to long-term benefits such as improved mood, reduced anxiety and depression symptoms, and a greater overall sense of well-being. Research suggests that sustained aerobic activity can help mitigate chronic mood disorders 10.

Conclusion

In summary, endorphins play a crucial role in the positive effects of aerobic exercise, providing pain relief, enhancing mood, reducing stress, and contributing to overall physical and mental well-being. The interplay of these hormones is essential in making aerobic exercise not just a physical activity but a significant component of emotional health and resilience 17.

Malingering

• Malingering is characterized by the deliberate fabrication or exaggeration of illness symptoms to achieve some specific personal gain.

Individuals may engage in malingering for various reasons, including:

1. Financial Gain: Seeking insurance benefits or other financial compensation.

2. Avoidance of Responsibilities: Escaping work, military duty, or other obligations.

3. Access to Drugs: Obtaining prescription medications or controlled substances by feigning illness.

4. Secondary Gains: Achieving attention, sympathy, or care from others, which may fulfill emotional needs.

Hardiness

Hardiness is a psychological construct that refers to an individual’s resilience to stress and their ability to cope with challenging situations. It encompasses a combination of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that contribute to mental toughness and resilience. Here are the key components and implications of hardiness:

Key Components of Hardiness

1. Commitment:

• Individuals with hardiness are often deeply involved in their life, work, and relationships. They tend to view challenges as opportunities for personal growth rather than as threats.

2. Control:

• This component refers to the belief that one can influence the events and outcomes in their life. Hardy individuals typically feel a sense of personal agency and that they can affect change in their circumstances, which promotes proactive coping strategies.

3. Challenge:

• Hardy individuals perceive challenges as a natural part of life and are more likely to embrace change. Rather than fearing uncertainty, they see it as an opportunity for development, fostering a positive outlook toward adversity.

Impacts of Hardiness

• Buffer Against Stress:

• Hardiness acts as a buffer against stress, allowing individuals to cope more effectively with pressure and reduce the negative impacts of stress on health and well-being as indicated in research on personality and health outcomes 23.

• Enhanced Psychological Health:

• People with high levels of hardiness are generally more psychologically resilient. They are less likely to suffer from anxiety and depression, and they engage in healthier behaviors as a response to stress.

• Improved Performance:

• In challenging situations, hardy individuals often demonstrate better performance compared to those with lower levels of hardiness. This can apply to various domains, including work, academics, sports, and personal relationships.

Applications of Hardiness

• Intervention and Training:

• Hardiness can be developed and enhanced through specific training programs aimed at improving commitment, control, and acceptance of challenges. These programs often focus on cognitive-behavioral techniques and stress management strategies.

• Health Psychology:

• In the field of health psychology, understanding an individual's level of hardiness can help healthcare providers tailor interventions to improve coping strategies and promote overall well-being, thereby enhancing treatment adherence and health outcomes 18.

Conclusion

Hardiness is a valuable trait that plays a significant role in how individuals cope with stress and adversity. By fostering commitment, control, and a positive view of challenges, individuals can improve their resilience and overall mental health, leading to better outcomes in both personal and professional domains 23.