Chapters 3 and 4 AP psychology Balmas study guide

bottom-up processing

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Transduction

The process of converting outside stimuli, such as light, into neural activity

Visual path of Transduction

light is detected to yield nerve impulses in the rod cells and cone cells in the retina of the eye in humans and other vertebrates.

Auditory path of transduction

the ear converts sound waves into electric impulses and sends them to the brain

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

just noticeable difference

the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

when people fail to detect changes to the visual details of a scene

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

semicircular canals

three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Condtioned Response

In classical conditioning, the reflexive response to a particular stimulus that has been acquired or learned on the basis of that stimulus, being linked to another stimulus, called the unconditioned stimulus

higher-order conditioning

occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Thorndike's Law of Effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

acquisition

the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Chaining

using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinstic motivation

desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

overjustification effect

the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

biological predispositions

Genetically programmed tendencies to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli

constraints in learning

a limitation on learning resulting from the evolutionary history of the organism

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Emphasizing learning through observation, vicarious learning and modeling