PSY 202Z Foundations, Emotion & Motivation,

Important terms for exam #1, including material from Week 1, 2,

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Wilhelm Wundt

A structuralist, founder of modern psychology, and built the first laboratory for psychological research

Introspection

Also known as internal perception, developed by Wundt, where his students would provide in-depth self-reports about their reactions to different stimuli. This approach was criticized for being unreliable and biased. Ex. Journaling.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wundt and introduced structuralism(Wundt’s version of Psychology) to America.

Structuralism

Aims to break down conscious experiences into their basic elements or component parts. Structuralists wanted to identify the basic structures that could explain behavior, similar to the periodic table in chemistry or fundamental laws in physics. Structuralists focused on sensation and perception. Ex. a structuralist studying someone viewing a flower would identify the raw sensory data—color, shape, texture—rather than naming the object.

William James

Accepting Darwin’s theory of natural selection, believed that traits of an organism, including behavior, adapted to ensure survival and reproduction. Therefore, James viewed psychology’s role as studying the function of behavior in the world, leading to the establishment of functionalism as an early school of psychology. James focused on examining the physiology of one's behavior and other psychological aspects of the mind.

Functionalism

Focused on how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment. Instead of studying consciousness by breaking it into parts, functionalists emphasized the purpose of behavior and mental processes. In the late 19th century, the early school of psychology that was heavily influenced by biology was functionalism.

W.E.I.R.D Psychology

Most well-known early psychologists and psychological studies were focused on WEIRD populations (i.e., psychology was dominated by:

• Western

• Educated

• Industrialized

• Rich

• Democratic people, and mainly men who were white

James McKeen Cattell

A functionalist, Catell believed intelligence was heritable and measurable through mental tests. Cattell supported eugenics, a movement promoting selective breeding, which cast a harmful legacy on psychology. Catell focused on the assessment of individual differences and the promotion of eugenics.

Sigmund Freud

Studied patients diagnosed with “hysteria”—a term then used (for women) to describe a wide range of physical and emotional symptoms without clear medical cause. Freud also studied the UNCONSCIOUS mind. He believed accessing the unconscious was key to resolving psychological distress. Techniques included dream analysis, free association (saying the first words that come to mind), and slips of the tongue (later called Freudian slips). His psychoanalytic theory emphasized the unconscious and the role of early childhood experiences. Freud is heavily criticized and his case studies were not supported by evidence.

Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory

Personality is shaped by the interaction of three components: the id, ego, & superego.

Id

Unconscious, our hidden true animalistic wants and desires like sex & aggression – operates on the pleasure principle, all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil on your shoulder – entirely unconscious).

Ego

Reality principle, partly conscious, has to deal w/ society, stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (Conscious and preconscious)

Superego

Our moral conscious (angel on your shoulder, all 3 consciousness).

Gestalt Psychology

Founded in Germany by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Lewin. Emphasized studying the mind and behavior as a whole rather than breaking experience into parts. “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." -Koffka

Behavioral Psychology (Behaviorism)

The school of psychology that focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. Its goal is to understand how behavior can be observed, measured, and controlled.

Ivan Pavlov

Behaviorist, Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning. In his famous experiment, Pavlov’s dogs reflexively responded to food by salivating, but when the food became paired with the sound of a ringing bell, the dogs learned to salivate to the ringing bell, even without the food. This showed that behaviors could be learned through association.

Classical conditioning

Learning process in psychology where an involuntary response becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus through repeated pairings.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits an involuntary response (e.g., food causing salivation).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit any involuntary response (e.g., a bell).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The NS becomes the CS after repeated pairings with the US.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The involuntary response that was originally elicited by the US now occurs in response to the CS (e.g., salivation at the sound of the bell).

John B. Watson

Behaviorist, rejected the study of consciousness, arguing it was too subjective. He believed psychology should only study observable behaviors that could be measured and predicted. Watson helped establish behaviorism as a dominant approach, often relying on animal studies to investigate learning. Watson’s most famous experiment was “Little Albert” which involved classical conditioning.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist, expanded behaviorism by studying how consequences shape behavior. He introduced operant conditioning, which emphasized:

Reinforcement- increases the likelihood of behavior.

Punishment- decreases the likelihood of behavior.

Skinner created the operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box). The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment.

Humanistic Psychology (Humanism)

An approach in psychology that highlights the inherent goodness of humans and their potential for good, the importance of personal growth, and the whole person rather than reductionist explanations.

Abraham Maslow

Proposed a hierarchy of needs to explain motivation. It went from physiological (food, water, rest), safety (security, employment), social (friends, family, relationships, belonging), esteem (confidence, self-worth, accomplishment), and self-actualization (inner fulfillment). 

Carl Rogers

Shared Maslow’s belief in human potential and developed client-centered therapy.Unlike psychoanalysis, where the therapist interprets unconscious conflicts, Rogers placed the client in the lead role during sessions. He believed therapists must provide 3 core conditions for growth:

1. Unconditional positive regard: accepting clients without judgment.

2. Genuineness: being authentic in interactions.

3. Empathy: understanding the client’s perspective.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving.

The 5 Psychological Domains (or pillars)

Biological, cognitive, social and personality, developmental, and mental and physical health.

Domain 1: Biological

• Explores how brain activity, hormones, genetics, and the nervous system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

• Sensation and perception- the study of how we detect and interpret sensory information. This field blends psychology, physiology, and neuroscience to explore how biological mechanisms of the senses (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance) connect to psychological experiences. For example: Picture yourself on a busy campus—

Vision: colors of buildings, shapes of people walking past.

Hearing: laughter, footsteps, chatter.

• Biopsychology (biological psychology or psychobiology)- Applies the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior.

• Neuroscience

• Evolutionary Psychology- Studies the extent that a behavior is impacted by genetics.

Domain 2: Cognitive

• Covers perception, memory, learning, intelligence, and decision-making

• Focuses on mental processes and how we acquire, organize, and use knowledge.

• Cognitive Psychology- The study of thought processes- how we perceive, remember, reason, and solve problems, and how these processes shape our experiences and actions.

Domain 3: Developmental

• Developmental Psychology- The scientific study of how people grow and change across the lifespan.  Object permanence would fall into this domain.

• Behavioral Psychology- Focuses on observable behavior and how it is shaped by the environment.

Domain 4: Social and Personality

• Includes personality, motivation, emotion, gender, and culture.

• Examines how individuals differ and how people are influenced by groups, relationships, and society.

• Social Psychology- The scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists investigate how people interpret situations and how those interpretations influence behavior. They study individuals in social contexts and examine how situational variables interact to guide actions. Research topics include:

  • Interpersonal processes: attraction, love, helping behavior, aggression.

  • Group dynamics: conformity, persuasion, prejudice, discrimination.

  • Cultural influences: identity, gender roles, norms, rituals, religion, family systems, power dynamics, and regional or historical differences.

• Personality Psychology- examines the enduring traits and patterns that make each person unique.

• The Big Five Model-

  • Openness (Imagination, creativity, curiosity, and willingness to explore new ideas and experiences).

  • Conscientiousness (Organized, persistent, and disciplined).

  • Extraversion (Energized by social interaction, while introverts gain energy from solitary activities).

  • Agreeableness (Kindness, empathy, cooperative, and trusting)

  • Neuroticism (emotional instability and a tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety, sadness, and irritability, someone with low neuroticism would be very calm).

Domain 5: Mental and physical health

• Abnormal psychology (psychopathology)- focus on abnormal thoughts and behaviors, as well as counseling and treatment methods, and recommendations for coping with stress and living a healthy life.

• Clinical psychology- Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic behaviors.

• Counseling psychology- Works with individuals who are generally psychologically healthy, focusing on challenges related to emotions, relationships, work, or overall well-being.

• Health psychology- Focuses on the study of how psychological factors, including thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and social interactions, influence health and well-being.

Study vs Experiment

An experiment involves actively manipulating variables to observe their effects on other variables, aiming to establish cause-and-effect relationships. A  study involves researchers observing and collecting data on phenomena as they naturally occur.

Independent variable

The factor a researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment

Dependent variable

The factor that is measured or observed and is expected to change in response to the independent variable

Biology of emotions of our limbic system in the brain:

• Hypothalamus- plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. The hypothalamus also plays an important role in motivated behaviors and sex. The 4 F’s (fighting, fleeing, feeding, f*cking)

• Thalamus- serves as a sensory relay center

• Amygdala- Responsible for regulating emotions and also helps with memory and learning. It is composed of various subnuclei (neural subcomponents), including the basolateral complex and the central nucleus. Additionally the amygdala also plays a role in motivation and sex.

Basolateral complex- critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory. Central nucleus- Involved in attention, has connections with the hypothalamus and various brain areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems' activity

• Hippocampus- integrated emotional experience with cognition.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation to do something for personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation to do something for external reasons-getting rewards, getting something from others, avoid punishment, etc.

Overjustification effect

Intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given.

Drive theory of motivation (drive reduction theory)

Organisms are motivated to act by internal drives, which are unpleasant states of tension caused by unmet physiological needs, and after we fulfill that physiological need, we return to homeostasis. Ex. If it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food (Figure 2). Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal.

Arousal theory of motivation

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological and psychological activation, or "arousal," to perform best on a task. This is connected to the Yerkes-Dodson law.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

An “easy” task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and “difficult” tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.

Self-efficacy

An individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or similar task. Bandura theorized that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior.

Fixed mindset

Tend to think of intelligence as an “entity”—something that is part of a person’s essential self. According to people with this belief, intelligence does not change much regardless of what we do or what we experience.

Growth mindset

Tend to think of intelligence as being “incremental”—a quality that can change for better or worse depending on what we do and on the experiences we have.

Physiological mechanisms

Regulates hunger, including the contraction of an empty stomach, which secretes chemical messages signaling the need to initiate feeding behaviors. The pancreas and liver also generate chemical signals that induce hunger when glucose levels decrease. The food’s passage through the gastrointestinal tract also provides important satiety signals to the brain. Leptin, a hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue, also helps balance food intake and energy expenditure by inducing signals of satiety or hunger in the hypothalamus and brainstem.

Metabolic rate

The amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time, and there is tremendous individual variability in our metabolic rates. People with high rates of metabolism are able to burn off calories more easily than those with lower rates of metabolism.

Set Point theory

Each individual’s body establishes and attempts to maintain a stable body weight, or a set point, which is resistant to change. This set-point is in part genetically predetermined and efforts to move our weight significantly from the set-point are resisted by compensatory changes in the hunger and satiety cues that influence our energy intake and/or expenditure.

BMI (Body Mass Index)

A widely used measurement system for assessing whether an individual’s weight is healthy for their height. It’s calculated by dividing an individual’s weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared.

Bulimia Nervosa

A type of eating disorder in which people engage in binge eating behavior followed by an attempt to compensate for the large amount of food consumed. Purging the food by inducing vomiting or using laxatives are two common compensatory behaviors. Some affected individuals engage in excessive amounts of exercise to compensate for their binges.

Binge eating disorder

An eating disorder characterized around people binge eating followed by distress, including feelings of guilt and embarrassment. The resulting psychological distress followed by the binges is what makes it different from overeating.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of bodyweight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise. Individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa often have a distorted body image, referenced in the literature as a type of body dysmorphia, meaning that they view themselves as overweight even though they are not. 

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is commonly used to address the distorted beliefs and behaviors related to eating, body shape, and weight. Medications such as antidepressants may also be prescribed to treat underlying mental health conditions like depression or anxiety, which are often common with eating disorders.

Emotion

Indicates a subjective, affective state that is relatively intense and that occurs in response to something we experience. Emotions are often thought to be consciously experienced and intentional. Ex. Feeling anger after someone is rude to you or experiencing joy after getting great news.

Mood

Refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience. Mood states may not be consciously recognized and do not carry the intentionality that is associated with emotion. Ex. Feeling irritable for several days, being in a good mood for the entire afternoon, or feeling generally cheerful without a specific reason

James-Lange theory of emotion

Emotions arise from physiological arousal.

External stimuli → physiological arousal → emotion

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.

External stimuli → physiological arousal + emotion (at the same time but separately)

Schachter-Singer Two-factor theory of emotion

Our emotional experience is the result of our physiological arousal being interpreted differently depending on the context in which it occurs.

External stimuli → physiological response + cognitive label → emotion

Lazarus’ Appraisal theory (cognitive-mediational theory)

You have thoughts (a cognitive appraisal) before you experience an emotion, and the emotion you experience depends on the nature of the thoughts you have. 

External stimuli → appraisal → physiological response + emotion (at the same time)

Cultural display rules

One of the collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are socially acceptable. Ex. Research has shown that individuals from the United States express negative emotions like fear, anger, and disgust both alone and in the presence of others, while Japanese individuals only do so while alone.

7 Universal expressions

No matter what culture you’re in, our ability to recognize and produce facial expressions of emotion appears to be universal; happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, contempt, and anger.

Facial feedback hypothesis (facial feedback loop)

Your facial expression can actually affect your emotional experience. Another’s facial expression can also affect your emotions too.

Instinct theory of motivation

According to William James, an organism’s behavior is primarily determined by its innate instincts. Ex. A bird may have an instinct to build a nest in response to the arrival of spring, or a predator may have an instinct to hunt and kill prey.

Habit

A pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior whenever faced with that drive in the future.

Hunger

A state of mind characterized by a desire to eat, driven by a complex interplay of physical needs, psychological factors, and social contexts.

Satiation

The feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating–is regulated by physiological mechanisms such as signals from the pancreas and liver to shut off hunger and eating as glucose increases

Obesity

A complex chronic disease defined by excessive fat deposits associated with increased risk for negative health consequences. An adult with a BMI of 30+ is considered obese.

Sexuality

People’s sexual interest in and attraction to others; it is the capacity to have erotic or sexual feelings and experiences.

Alfred Kinsley

The first to initiate large scale survey and interview research about sex. Initiated conversations about sex even though they were controversial. Kinsey also created the Kinsey scale, a continuum to categorize sexual orientation.

Sexual orientation

Refers to a person’s their emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex or gender

Gender identity

A person’s sense of their own gender, or sociocultural classification based on, or in opposition to, their sex assigned at birth.

Gender dysphoria

A diagnostic category in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) that describes individuals who do not identify as the gender that most people would assume they are.

William Masters and Virginia Johnsons’ study

In their study, Williams and Johnson observed people having sex and masturbating and this led to them developing the sexual response cycle.

Sexual response cycle

William Masters and Virginia Johnson divided the sexual response cycle into 4 phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

1. Excitement phase- arousal phase and it’s marked by the erection of the penis or clitoris and the lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal.

2. Plateau phase- Individuals experience a full erection of the penis often accompanied by pre-ejaculatory fluid or further swelling of the vagina and increased blood flow to the labia minora

3. Orgasm phase- The climax of the phases. For individuals with female sex organs, orgasm is marked by rhythmic contractions of the pelvis and uterus along with increased muscle tension. For individuals with male sex organs, pelvic contractions are accompanied by a buildup of seminal fluid near the urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital muscles (i.e., ejaculation)

4. Resolution phase- The relatively rapid return to an unaroused state accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation