377 exam 2

Why were poultry first domesticated?

the rising popularity of cockfighting

Poultry vision

They have relatively large eyes with a third eyelid that are fixed within bony sockets. They are very good at focusing on small objects directly in front of them. They will peck at small (0.3 cm) round objects. Eye development can be negatively impacted by dim light and continuous illumination. They have increased sensitivity to blue and red

Poultry panoramic vision

300°

Poultry binocular vision

26°

Poultry taste and olfaction

Their food preference is based on visual cues and taste preferences. Might have a preference for umami/salt. They have no receptors for sweet/spicy food (this is somewhat controversial) and have an aversion to bitter tastes. Also aversive to carnivore poop. Have about 300 tastebuds, and can detect a variety of odours which is important for finding food. Uropygial gland helps with mate selection.

Poultry hearing and vocalization

is an acute sense, adapt at detecting low frequency sounds, even as low as 20 Hz. Communication (like threats and submission) signals provided. via postures, displays and vocalizations. Types of calls include warning/predator alarm calls, contact calls, mating calls, threat calls, territorial calls, submissive calls, distress, alarm or fear calls, laying, nesting, contentment and food calls.

Swine vision

Have some colour vision but are not able to focus well, very inquisitive.

Swine sense of smell

Have a well developed sense of smell. Smell is used to locate underground truffles in Europe, and to identify conspecifics. Pheromones are used to alarm others to aversive stimuli.

Swine hearing

is well developed and used for communication in all social activities along to alarm others to aversive stimuli

Swine panoramic vision range

310°

Swine binocular vision range

35-50°

How is huddling (thigmotaxis) behaviour in piglets and dispersed behaviour is an indicator of thermal comfort?

Pigs are susceptible to hot conditions because their rate of sweating is very low (sweat only on the disk of the snout). Inadequate thermoregulatory compensation by respiratory evaporative loss occurs. Young pigs are especially susceptible to cold. The behavioural feature is retained through the pigs life is to huddle with littermates. Nest building activity in the natural state provides shelter from environmental extremes.

Sexual behaviour in pigs

Courtship behaviour lasts a short time. The male sniffs the sow, noses sides, flanks, and vulva and emits a mating song of soft guttural grunts for 6-8 seconds. The boar foams at the mouth and moves his jaw from side to side when the sow becomes stationary (lordosis), the boar mounts. There are pheromones present in the boar saliva and preputial secretions (androstenone;skatole). The presence of a boar will induce early puberty in gilts. The social environment of the boar during rearing will influence its level of sexual activity. If raised individually with no visual contact with females despite smell and sound, have reduced copulation frequency and shot average duration of ejaculation compared to boars reared in groups.

Beef cattle vision

tend to have weak eye muscles which inhibits their ability to focus quickly on objects. Their pupils are slit shaped. They can distinguish long wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) better than shorter wavelengths (blue, grey, greens). They can distinguish all colours from a grey background except blue and have very poor depth perception. What they see lacks definition, and will often balk and refuse to cross a shadow or drain grate.

Beef cattle panoramic vision

330°

blind spot directly behind them

Beef cattle binocular vision

25-50°

allows for greater predator awareness, don’t have good depth perception

Beef cattle sense of smell

While grazing, they constantly sniff the pasture. They can distinguish smell. Their secondary olfactory system can detect pheromones (volatile chemicals) important for both reproduction and feed selection.

Beef cattle taste buds

Have about ~30,000 taste buds that can differentiate acid (sour), bitter, salt, and sweet solutions. Smell and taste is important to them.

Beef cattle hearing

Have very sensitive ears, can be calmed with soothing music or stressed by loud noises. Dairy breeds are more sensitive to sound and touch than beef breeds.

True or false: In beed cattle herds where there is a lot of competition you won’t see as much allogrooming

True

True or false: Feedlot cattle might have a flight zone of about 1.5m, however less handled range cattle may have a flight zone of 30m

True

Sexual behaviour in beef cattle

As a cow reaches estrus the bull becomes very excited and follows her closely (tailgating), licking and smelling her external genitalia and often exhibiting flehmen. Pre-copulatory patterns includes pawing the ground and snorting, chin resting just before mounting and then copulation. Copulation is short (seconds) compared with horses and pigs (minutes). Social ranking of bulls can influence sexual activity, the most dominant animals mate the most. As cows become sexually receptive they may mount or may be mounted by other cows, sniff males, or become involved in mock fighting. Cows are receptive for about a day. Level of sexual behaviour displayed is determined by genetics, environmental factors, physiological factors, health and previous experience. Bulls of dairy breeds are generally more sexually active than beef, and new herd members attract greater sexual attention. The bull detects about 2 days before estrus and remains in a cows general vicinity. The period of sexual receptivity (mounting behaviour) ranges from 1 to 18 hours, averaging about 4.4 hours. Bulls used for AI or hand breeding may have poor semen quality or poor reproductive behavior due to the lack of stimulatory effects otherwise provided by a prolonged courtship.

Maternal offspring behaviour in beef cattle

Suckling behaviour begins 2-5 hours after birth and the mother must be standing. the calf vigorously butts the mother’s udder with its had while suckling. Has been noted that heifers which had a difficult birth took longer to stand than cows who had already had several calves. The mother licks the young to stimulate breathing, circulation, urination and defecation. The cow is a hider species so the young are hidden near the birth site after birth and the afterbirth is eaten, because it could attract predators. Teat suckling by the cald is most intense soon after it stands up, common for suckling to occur first from a front teat. The distance maintained between the cow and calf increases steadily with time after calving. The pair will keep in contact through vocalizing. Within the first week of life the cald begins to follow the cow. For periods of the day, groups of calves will be found lying together for much of the day while cows are grazing. It is in the period before calves are themselves grazing that nurseries may form. There may be a guard cow left in charge and observations are reported from cows under extensive rangeland conditions. The heritability of maternal behaviour is low in cattle, so it is difficult for farmers to select for good mothering ability in bloodlines. Contact between the cow and her calf for a period as brief as 5 minutes post partum results in a strong specific maternal bond.

Beef calf behaviour

Vision, olfactory and vocal senses are involved in cow-calf identification. Cows will groom their calves labelling them as their own. Calves usually stand 45 minutes after birth, suckling 2-5 hours later. Mother aids suckling by positioning her body for easier access. Between birth and 7 months, mean duration of suckling time for calves was seen to be 34 minutes, with the suckling frequency being 4.5 times per day.

What are the 6 R’s of bison handling

1. Reducing the size of the group

2. Reduce the speed of the group being handled

3. Remember the ripple effect

4. Release pressure

5. Retreat

6. Reward

Explain the 6 R’s of bison handling

1. Reducing the size of the group

   • individual units are best, but otherwise groups of 3 or 5 work. Odd numbers means not all animals can pair up.

2. Reduce the speed of the group being handled

   • Speed kills, they need time to process which direction they go. they will run through you

3. Remember the ripple effect

   • When one bison moves, the one adjacent to it will then move and so on. When ripples in the group collide, chaos ensures and this means the group is probably too big

4. Release pressure

   • Enables bison to move away from the handler. As soon as they perceive they are trapped, will try to escape through what is trapping them.

5. Retreat

   • When bison are crowding into corners and pushing each other, step back because it is time for a time out for both bison and handler

6. Reward

   • a high quality food reward set out in the paddock large enough for animals to be comfortable

Bison senses

They have a keen sense of smell, but their eyesight is poor. They contact one another by uttering grunts. They are normally mild mannered, but they can be unexpectedly aggressive. Threat postures include a snort or guttural bellow with head up, mouth open, and tail erect.

Bison wallows

bulls and cows wallow in dry areas where they can stir clouds of dust. Sometimes they wallow in wet areas. This behaviour is important in grooming, sensory stimulation, alleviating skin irritation, and reproductive behaviour. It also transports soils and seeds to other areas of the prairie and serves a purpose in the prairie ecosystem. They collect rainwater and form small ponds which become available to vertebrates and invertebrates. The supply of water enhances growth of specific vegetation needing a moist or wet habitat.

Bison grazing

Are grazers as they walk while biting off mouthfuls of grass. The grass is quickly swallowed to be later brought up for cud chewing later in the day and at night. Diet is 99+% grasses. They can go a long time without water and travel long distances to find water. An adult will consume more than 30 pounds of grass (dry weight) in a day. Unlike cattle, they do not have to be fed supplementally during winter.

Bison locomotion

May look slow and clumsy, but can actually run up to 35 mph. They can also jump 6 feet high (vertically) and 7 feet horizontally. Also are powerful swimmers.

Differentiate between bison and buffalo

North American Buffalo is NOT a true buffalo. True buffalo are from Asia or Africa like Cape Buffalo or Water Buffalo. True buffalo are called bison. Many more products from water buffalo have recently found their way into the NA markets. This has caused the bison industry to rethink the term buffalo being applied to bison products. The bison industry is encouraging all bison producers and marketers to use the name Bison to avoid confusion.

Planes Bison versus Wood Bison

Planes Bison (North)

• population 65,000

• translocated

• the largest producer outside of sask is in alberta

• bulls average 16,000 pounds

• stocky, rounded hump

• whiter

• summer, their cap forms a distinct boundary

• frizzy hair on their head

• round, big beards

• long hair on chaps

Wood Bison (South)

• taller than planes

• have a square hump

• 18,000 pounds

• cape usually doesn’t form a distinct boundary

• long straight hair sloping forward in their face

• little to no chap hair on their forelimbs

• smaller more pointed beard

How are bison similar to cattle?

They are both grazing ruminants with split hooves. Both have multiple stomachs and chew their cud. Both typically raise one calf per year (twins are rare but possible). The gestation period is typically around 9 months for both bison and cattle. Males of both species are capable of impregnating females between one and two years of age. Calving and breeding seasons for dairy and beef cattle can potentially occur at almost any time of the year.

How are bison different from cattle?

Both male and female bison have horns, while not all breeds of cattle grow horns. Beef and dairy cows often have their first calf at two years of age, bison typically don’t have a calf until they are three years old. Domesticated animals tend to sexually mature sooner, and bison are not truly domesticated. Bison calves are naturally weaned by their mothers around a month prior to the arrival of a new calf. Calving and breeding seasons for bison closely follow the patterns in nature with calves arriving in may and June and the breeding season running from shortly after the start of calving through august. While males of both species are capable of impregnating females from one and two years of age, in practice bison bulls do not become dominant active breeders in the herd until they are at least four years old. Bison have retained their natural instincts to a greater degree than domestic cattle and require some specialized handling techniques. They are different in appearance, the bison has a distinctive hump and impressive shaggy hair coat over the front quarters and head. The tails of bison are less than half the length of the tails on cattle.

How are milk yield and milking order related?

There is a tendency for dominant cows to enter the parlor first, however the order is mostly affected by who is highest yielding. The positive correlation is that there is a higher reward to relieve pressure.

Activity time budget of dairy cows

12.5 hrs/day lying down and resting (52%)

10 hrs/day eating, drinking, chewing cud, exercising, and socializing (42%)

1.5 hrs/day in the milking parlor (6%)

calf behaviour

Suckling begins 0.5 - 1 hour after birth. The other licks the young to stimulate breathing, circulation, urination and defecation. They usually stand 30 minutes after birth. During suckling, cow licks the calf for recognition and acceptance. Social behaviour is manifested by licking, smelling, playing ad jumping. Vision, olfactory and vocal senses are involved in cow and calf identification. Once separated from the dam (immediately) calves are fed milk replacer from a bottle or bucket. They are social animals and require contact with other calves or with their mothers. Have a preference for games in which aggressive elements can be found (like play fighting). Resting behaviour is influenced by several factors, the most important being age, floor structure, and health state. Younger animals require a longer rest period.

maternal behaviour in dairy calves

5 minutes of contact with a calf immediately post partum is sufficient for the formation of a maternal bond with that calf. After 24 hours of separation, the cow stills shows signs of distress (but may not recognize her own calf if insufficient bond formation prior to separation). Dairy calves are usually separated within the first 24 hours after calving. Timing varies by producer, and later separation causes stress to dams.

Parturition in dairy cows

Approaching parturition they are restless in stalls or if loose seek isolation from group. Increased activity occurs such as walking, standing/lying bouts, kicks fore feet at stomach or flank. Then decreased feed intake and vocalizations occur. May arch their back which demonstrates discomfort and a sign they are about to give birth. During labour the dam stands and lays frequently, sprawls out on back with all legs stretched out during contractions. Rises to side and then lays back frequently. Placentophagy (eats own placenta) because they are a prey species. Postpartum removes mucous from the calf by licking the calf clean. Dam helps the calf stand and positions her body to initiate suckling.

Drinking behaviour in dairy cows

Depending on their lactation stage a cow might drink between 50-100 L/day. Water intake peaks to 40% of intake one hour after milking to maintain rumen osmolarity. Milk is 85-88% water. Three to four meters is needed around the water trough to reduce pushing and shoving. Optimal temperature for drinking water is between 15°C and 17°C. Lactating cows should be close to a water supply, especially during periods of heat stress or bitter cold and frozen surfaces. Cows prefer to eat, then drink, eat, then drink. Submissive cows use a water bowl less frequently than their more aggressive partners using the same water bowl. When a cow goes off feed, water intake decreases. In pigs, this is the opposite.

milking behaviour in diary cows

Prior to milking, cows are restless due to weight, fullness, and udder pressure. During milking, most cows settle and stand calmly. New cows are more restless and may jump or kick the milking machine off their udder.

What is the effect manual stimulation prior to milking has on milk flow rates?

Results in shorter machine-on times (higher milking efficiency) and higher peak and average milk flow rates. Rough management can increase machine-on time.

Rest in dairy cattle

young, pre-ruminant cattle lay in a lateral recumbent position (when adequate space is provided). Adult cows lay in a sternal recumbent position. They ruminate when resting, hooves rest and dry off. Allow for blood circulation. More space or other cows to walk around the barn. Blood circulation through the udder increases by up to 30%

Explain what the third party effect is and how it relates to dominance rank and aggression?

fewer aggressive acts occur towards subordinates when in the presence of more dominant flockmates. May also be due to lack of space for aggressive encounters and threat displays.

Sexual behaviour in poultry

A series of displays occur before mating, following a stimulus-response sequence which is initiated by the male. They are often very elaborate, involving postures, vocalizations, noises, spreading of the feathers to increase apparent size and emphasize of plumage characteristics. High status females are often difficult to mate. It requires the female to take a submissive stance (crouch). One solution is to separate high ranking females to mate them (so they effectively become lower rank in the newer, smaller, group).

What are Leks?

a specialized mating system where male birds or other animals gather in a common area to perform competitive courtship displays, dancing, or vocalizations to attract females.

What is the order of sexual behaviour in poultry between males and females?

Male approaches female who either (1) escapes, (2) avoids, (3) or sexually crouches. If 3, the male mounts and treads. The female moves tail to one side and everts cloaca. The male spreads his tail and everts cloaca. Their vents meet. The male ejaculates and steps off, the female stands and shakes.

Maternal offspring behaviour in poultry

broodiness has been selected against in commercial strains. A bond between hen and chicks will form, the hen serves an important protective function to the chick. Precocial chicks imprint on their parents in the first few days of life. They remain close to the imprinted object (which is normally a parent).

How has selection of production traits influenced behaviour in poultry?

Selection of early onset egg production has led to more aggressive and socially dominant females, prior to full maturity. Most aggression is seen at the feed trough. Selection of rapid growth in broilers has led to a noticeable decrease in active behaviours. More aggression tends to occur in moderate groups than small groups. Roosters can decrease aggression, but are aggressive themselves when breeding.

Feeding behaviour in poultry

laying hens choose to feed close to each other when given a choice of feeding locations. This demonstrates the importance of social attraction. Chickens show socially facilitated feeding and peck more at feed when they have company than when alone.

Sheep vision

large pupils of a somewhat rectangular shape. Build in wide angle lens which enhances peripheral vision. This means a certain amount of vertical vision is sacrificed. They might not be able to see a predator up in a tree. Vision is very similar to cattle. Good panoramic vision, possibly due to being a prey species (to see a predator out of the corner of their eye). Able to distinguish between black, red, yellow, and white. Have a hard time judging depth.

Sheep binocular vision

25-50°

Sheep panoramic vision

330-360°

Sheep hearing

Are sensitive to high pitched noises. Experience increased released of stress related hormones in response to sudden loud noises like barking dogs. They become nervous and difficult to handle when stress hormones are elevated. They can amplify and pinpoint sound with their ears. Sounds arrive at each ear at slightly different times with a small difference in amplitude which the auditory system can process into a directional signal. This can be further refined by moving the ears, head or the entire body.

Sheep smell

have a slightly more highly developed olfactory system than humans. They incorporate olfaction more completely into their interaction with their environment. They use smell to identify others. This is how ewes pick out their own lambs in a group. Smell is also used during mating. Flehmen response is used to detect ewes in estrus. May use smell to locate water and to identify subtle or major differences between pastures and feeds. For example, they prefer to avoid grazing near where other sheep have defecated (camping) and will select fresh feed in preference to spoiled.

Sheep taste

have the ability to differentiate between feedstuffs. Sweet and sour plants are preferred and bitter plants are usually rejected.

Sheep sense of touch

Nose, lips, and mouth are used for feeding behaviour. These areas specifically because their bodies are covered in wool. Lambs seek body contact with their dams and ewes respond to the touching behaviour in various ways. For example, milk let down is a response to nuzzling/suckling stimulus of lambs.

Explain camping behaviour in sheep

The sites they choose for the day are different from night. Also known as bedding habits. Because of this behaviour, a large proportion of feces is dropped at the site so plant nutrients are transferred from the pasture to the campsite. This also causes a build up of internal parasite eggs at the site too. Many have to fence off campsites and force sheep to move to other areas from time to time.

Sheltering behaviour in sheep

If available in the summer, sheep will use shade. If not they stand in groups and shade their heads under flanks or between the hind legs of adjacent lambs rather than lying down. In hot weather, they tend to graze into the wind on treeless plains. But on cold wet days they huddle in the down-wind corner of the paddock so shelters should be placed there. Least used shelters are typically near roads, human activity and paddock ends.

Grazing behaviour in sheep

There are 2 primary grazing periods, in the early morning and late in the afternoon. They typically graze for 5-10 hours a day. They are crepuscular and grazing behaviour is influenced by day length, environmental factors, breed, availability of pasture and water, and topography. Their cleft upper lip permits very close grazing. They jerk their head slightly forward and up to break stems, leaves and grass blades against the dental pad and lower incisors.

Sexual behaviour in sheep

In pens, there is little relation between dominance and mating behaviour. The dominant ram doesnt necessarily mate the most. Rams are not stimulated by observing mounting behaviour. However exposure to recently mated rams increases the sexual performance of other rams, and so does the odour of estrus. It is the ewe that seeks out the ram and stays close behind him (proceptive behaviour). Males exhibit the flehmen response.

maternal offspring behaviour in sheep

some ewes remain with the flock during lambing while others seek isolation. Within seconds of birth the ewe faces the lamb and begins vigorously licking and eating of the fetal membranes. The lamb must find the teat within 1-2 hours, visual cues are important for successful teat location. Strange lambs may be accepted immediately following birth. Rejection rate increases after 12 hours following birth. You can re-stimulate the ewe through simulated delivery and own lamb odours used on the strange lamb. Lambs recognize their mothers call by individual differences. Ewes recognize their lambs via vocalizations, smell and visual (especially head cues). Suckling behaviour is modified by ewe behaviour. Are a follower species, the ewe remains within one meter of the lamb. The most important abnormal behaviour in sheep is concerned with maternal behaviour (the rejection of the lamb).

What are the four types of poultry industry

• mature egg-laying hens (layers)

• meat-type birds (broilers)

• turkeys

• breeding flocks

How does housing affect poultry behaviour?

Enriched cages provide perches, scratchpads, nest boxes, and dust baths allowing for a wider variety of natural behaviour than conventional battery cages. Aviaries are complex environments that can lead to an increase in injuries due to the use of perches. Also large group sizes in barn or aviary systems can lead to unstable social groups, increasing mortality and behavioral problems

mature egg-laying hens (layers) housing systems

cages (battery or enriched), however canada is phasing these out. They will be phased out by 2036 and replaced with enriched or cage free systems.

Meat-type birds (broilers) housing systems

floor systems aka free run or aviary

turkey housing systems

floor systems aka free run or aviary

breeding flocks housing systems

floor systems aka free run or aviary

compare and contrast red jungle fowl habitat and behaviour with commercial poultry habitats and behaviours

Habitat: red jungle fowl originated in the jungles of south east asia. Commercial poultry are housed in intensive environments like cages.

Behaviour: Red jungle fowl spend the majority of their day searching for food. Commercial birds are provided with free food, but they retain this ancestral drive and will still forage and scratch. If they are not provided with litter to satisfy this need, they may attempt to forage by digging in their feed troughs.

compare and contrast wild boar habitat and behaviour with commercial pig habitat and behaviour

Both use wallowing in mud as a thermoregulatory behaviour to keep cool and prevent sunburn as they have few sweat glands. Wild boars and feral pigs are woodland animals that act as omnivorous scavengers, foraging for roots and leaves. They live in a social hierarchy within matriarchal herds consisting of several females and their offspring. While males typically live in separate bachelor groups. Wild sows exhibit distinct maternal behaviours, such as building nests before farrowing and spending 2-3 weeks alone with their litter before returning to the herd. Weaning is a gradual process in the wild, typically occurring around 17 weeks of age, with the sow reducing nursing efforts starting at 4 weeks. Commercial pigs are kept in groups of littermates or unacquainted pigs of similar age and size. While they retain the instinct for behaviours like nest building, (sometimes seen as phantom nesting) their environment is much more restricted. Weaning in commercial systems is an abrupt process occurring much earlier, typically at 3 or 4 weeks, sometimes 1 to 2 weeks or disease prevention.

What is known about social and feeding behaviour in poultry

They are social feeders, meaning they prefer to eat near other and will peck more at food when they have company. Food neophobia is an ancestral reluctance to try brand new foods, requiring gradual dietary changes. Taste is influenced by smells they were exposed to while still in the egg.

Tell how a peck order is formed and explain how sub groups are formed and how feeding behaviours, head movements, and vision are associated with peck order

An peck order is established through pecking and threatening when birds are first placed together. Formation of subgroups, in large groups hens do not move randomly, they form neighborhoods or sub groups where they are well aquatinted with their neighbors. This reduced conflict because they avoid meeting strangers. Feeding is associated with the peck order as hens choose to feed close to each other due to social attraction, though aggression is most common at the feed through. Heck and neck feathers are vital for social recognition. In turkeys, their heads can change from blue to red indicating arousal or aggression.

At what age does pecking order form in poultry?

established 6-8 weeks in cockerels and 8-10 weeks in pullets. Pecking orders are observed in laying and breeding systems. They are not usually seen in broilers because these birds are marketed before they reach the age where social hierarchy is established.

List common behaviour problems in poultry and their common causes

Problems include feather pecking, which can be gentle or severe, and injurious pecking which as vent pecking or cannibalism. Feather pecking is a form of redirected ground pecking. Causes include, lack of foraging materials, bright lights that agitate birds, and social contagion where the behaviour spreads through a flock.

Provide recommendations for ways to mitigate common behaviour problems in poultry in commercial systems

Environmental enrichment: litter for foraging, scratchpads, or novel but biologically relevant objects like hanging CDs to redirect pecking behaviour away from other birds. Using light control like using dim lights or red light bulbs since red light is known to reduce feather pecking. Management methods like using bitter tasting sprays like “Stop Peck” on affected birds, though these require frequent reapplication. Ensure chicks are taught how to use food and water systems early on.

Goat panoramic vision

320-340°

Goat binocular vision

20-60°

Goat vision

they have prominent eyes and can distinguish yellow, orange, blue, violet, and green from shades of grey of similar brightness.

Goat smell

is well developed, new food is investigated by sniffing it

Sexual behaviour in goats

- Males tests urine of female and performs flehmen

• Male approaches female with a slight crouch, head slightly extended, horns back, ears forward,

tail vertical and tongue extended

• Female remains still as male approaches or moves away depending on receptivity

• If female is receptive, male does “rush-grumble”, rushing towards female and vocalizes.

• Male then nuzzles flank of female, back and ano-genital area with tongue extended

• Female signals her willingness to copulate by standing still with head lowered, and moves tail to

one side.

Maternal/offspring behaviour in goats

• Within a few minutes of birth, mother licks and grooms her kid (ie the newborn goat).

➢ Cleans kid, which provides clues for neonate recognition by mother (complex interplay

of vocal, visual, smell, and gustatory stimuli)

• Maternal-offspring bond very individually specific and female will aggressively reject suckling

attempts of ‘stranger’ offspring.

• Feral goats hide the neonate to prevent predator attack (similar to cattle behaviour)

➢ Sheep are classified as ‘followers’

social organization, dominance, and leadership in goats

• In feral herds, a large male is dominant and maintains discipline and coherence of the herd

➢ Leads group but shares foraging expedition leadership with old “she goat” (who is

known as the herd queen)

➢ Herd queen will normally survive succession of a number of “kings”

• Horn size is a rank symbol (can designate dominance without combat)

• Scent urination (e.g. male urinates on his beard) is an indicator of rank and physical condition

• Agonistic encounters can be non-contact threat (staring, horn-threat with chin down and horns

forward, rush, or rear as a challenge threat) or contact encounters (pushing forehead against

another goat, butting and rear-clash)

• In feral goats, group size and composition is highly variable (and unstable)

• Family groups include dominant male, small number of adult females and their offspring

• Males form bachelor herds during non-breeding periods

• Almost impossible to “drive” goats (ie handling and movement)

• When danger approaches, goats scatter and then face the enemy

➢ Depends on agility and manoeuvring for safety

• Leadership orders did not seem related to age or dominance in goats (when studied in 1947)

• Milking order consistent; correlation between entrance order and milk yield

Alarm behaviour in goats

Is highly developed

➢ Female stands rigid with ears towards source of alarm

➢ Stimulates young to run to the female (similar to when nursing)

➢ Female may snort loudly several times to alert other goats

➢ Depending on source, group may either take flight, move away slowly or return to

previous activities

Farrowing in swine

About 6 hours before farrowing, the sow will nest build hallowing out a depression and lining it with available materials like straws or sticks. The drive is so strong that they may phantom nest build.

Social behaviour in swine

Are highly social and can remember up to 30 individual, though they rarely choose to congregate in groups larger than 20.

Material offspring behaviour in swine

The bond is formed through olfaction, visual cues, and nose to nose contact. Sows use specific grunting patterns to communicate the different stages of nursing to their piglets. There is a build up of nose before milk let down, then quiet. In natural settings, piglets begin following their mother at day 6.

Explain the sequence of nursing-suckling behaviour, what hormone plays an important rile, and how long is milk letdown?

Nursing is a complex, synchronized behaviour that occurs every 50-60 minutes

1. Piglets stimulating the sow's udder for 30 seconds

2. The sow emits a series of grunts that increase in frequency, tone, and magnitude to

signal the stages of nursing

3. Just before milk flow, piglets hold the teat and suck with slow movements (about one

per second)

4. The oxytocin is released, triggering the actual milk letdown, which lasts only 10-20

seconds!

During letdown, piglets suck rapidly at a rate of 3 sucks/second

5. Once the flow stops, piglets may nose the udder, which communicates the need for

more milk in the next bout

How and when is a teat order formed? Link teat order to rank within a dominance hierarchy, is the teat order stable or unstable?

A stable teat order is formed within the first few hours of birth. Piglets are drawn to the teats via an udder heat gradient and olfactory cues (milk smell). There is a strong preference for the anterior (front) teats, as they provide greater milk flow. Consequently, these teats are usually claimed by the largest, most dominant, and earlier-born piglets. Most fighting between young littermates occurs during this process as they establish their specific "musical chairs" positions at the udder.

Identify which types of processing procedures in young piglets are related to a behavioural concern?

1. Tail docking: Performed to prevent the development of tail biting

2. Teeth clipping: Done to prevent piglets from causing lesions to the sow’s udder or injuries to littermates during competition

3. Ear notching: For identification

Note: According to the sources, castration is performed to prevent "boar taint" in the meat rather than to reduce aggression. This would be a managerial, not behavioural issue.

List common behaviour problems in pigs and provide recommendations for ways to mitigate them in commercial systems

Common Problems:

• Tail and ear biting

• Belly nosing/sucking (appear during early weaning (1-2 weeks) and manifest in the G-F phase)

• Cannibalism, and savaging (aggression toward piglets, often in gilts aka new moms, develops after farrowing)

• Abnormal mating or maternal behaviour

• Abnormal dunging habits

Mitigation: Enrichment!

• Bite resistant toys

• Rooting enrichments

• Air filled inner tubes

• Rubber nipples

What does it mean for a behaviour to be re-directed? Which common behaviour problem in confined sows is not actually a stereotypy

This occurs when a pig’s natural urge (such as the drive to suckle or root) is diverted toward an inappropriate target, such as a pen-mate's tail or belly because the environment lacks a proper outlet. Stereotypies include sham chewing, bar biting and drinker pressing. But NOT dog sitting, that is a health problem.

Describe different types of housing and milking systems in dairy cows and evaluate the effect each has on cow behaviour and welfare

Tie stall: mostly in Ontario and Quebec, cows are tethered but still have requirements for exercise and specific chain lengths.

• Restricted stall spaces in tie stalls can lead to throwing food behaviour because the cows normal head-swinging grazing motion is limited

Free stall: Milking systems involve herringbone parlors or rotaries where cows are brought in when ready to be milked

Robotic farm: use treats as positive reinforcement and alleviate udder pressure as negative reinforcement.

• facility design (bed size, quantity of water) and the available space (alley way width) are determining factors in a cows ability to engage in movement and sociability

Locomotion in dairy cows

Cows utilize walking, trotting, and galloping gaits but strongly dislike moving backwards, typically only doing so to exit a stall. They are motivated to move by needs for food, water, and companionship. Walking at least 3 km per day is recommended to prevent health issues. When getting down, kneels down with one foreleg, then both and tucks one hind limb under the abdomen and lowers rear end. Standing up is a pendulum (lunge forward).

Explain methods for behaviour estrus detection and provide reasons for why estrus detection has become more difficult in modern dairy production.

• Visual observation (like of mounting behaviour) - only 50% accurate

• Tail chalk/Kamar patches (require different colours)

• Heat watch

• Pedometers/Activity monitors (collar or ankle fit bit, high production levels can also alter the behavioural signs, such as rumination patterns that these technologies usually monitor)

• Automated pressure sensors can also notify producers via Wi-Fi if an animal has been mounted for more than three seconds (poor internet connectivity in rural farming communities)

More cows, bigger production now. High milk production, intense genetic selection, and confinement housing have reduced both the intensity and duration of estrus behavior in cows

Relate cow standing and lying behaviour to barn stall deign and spatial needs, relate effects of flooring to specific dairy cow behaviours

• Cows require enough space to perform a pendulum-like forward lunge to stand up from a lying position

• Cows require enough space around resources, as 3 to 4 meters of space are needed around water troughs to prevent aggressive pushing

• Flooring and bedding: If cows are not lying down, it may indicate that the bedding is uncomfortable or that alleyways are too crowded with traffic

• sand bedding moulds to the cow's body and provides thermal regulation, cooling them in summer and retaining heat in winter

• Younger animals are MORE sensitive to floor structure when choosing to rest

rumination in dairy cows

6 to 8 hours daily, typically in 8 X 45-minute bouts. This process involves forming a bolus of food mixed with saliva, which helps maintain a healthy rumen pH of 6.0 to 6.2. Continues several hours after dark. 60-70 bites per minute while ruminating.

Feeding behaviour in dairy cows

Require free access to forage. Sorting behaviour occurs when cows use their noses to pick out high concentrate particles from a total mixed ration (TMR) which inadvertently cause acidosis. Throwing behaviour involves shoveling s