A&P I Final Exam Study Guide

what are they 8 necessary life functions

1. boundaries
2. movement
3. responsiveness
4. digestion
5. metabolism
6. excretion
7. reproduction
8. growth

what does life need to survive

1. nutrient
2. oxygen
3. water
4. norma body temp
5. appropriate atmospheric pressure

what is the different between regional, systemic, and surface anatomy

* regional: focused on specific regions of the body
* systemic: focused on organ system
* surface: focused on external body

anatomical position

body facing forward, hands facing forward, feet slightly apart

superior (cranial)

towards head or upper part of body

inferior (caudel)

away from head, towards lower end of body

Anterior

towards front end of the body, in front of

posterior

Towards back of body, behind

medial

towards the midline of the body, inner body

lateral

away from midline, outside of the body

intermediate

between more medial and more lateral

proximal

towards of origin of the body

distal

away from trunk of body

superficial

towards surface of body

deep

more away from surface of the body, internal

define negative feedback

* Most-used feedback mechanism in body
* Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
* Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change
* Example of a negative feedback:
* Receptors sense increased blood glucose
* Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into blood
* insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels

define positive feedback

*  Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
* May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as initial change
* Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example:
* Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
* Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

homeostasis

the ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment, regardless of environmental changes

what are the 3 basic components of the feedback system

1. receptor
2. control center
3. effector

What is the difference between kinetic versus potential energy

* Potential energy: energy that is stored in an object at rest and when acted up and released it turns into kinetic energy
* Kinetic energy: energy that is active and moving matter

what's the difference between solutes and solvents

* solute: substance that dissolves in the solution
* solvent: substance that does the dissolving

what determines the rate of chemical reactions

* Temperature:
* increase speeds up reaction
* decrease slows down reactions
* concentration of reactants
* more reactants the faster the reaction
* particle size
* the smaller the particles the faster the reaction
* Catalyst
* increase the rate of reaction without becoming part of the reaction or dissolving in the reaction
* enzymes are biological catalysts

what do catalysts do in a chemical reaction

they speed up the chemical reaction without becoming part of the reaction or dissolving in the reaction, They also lower the energy it takes to make a chemical reaction happen

monomers

a singular molecule that can bond to other molecules

polymer

monomers bonded together

What does the pH scale measure?

the amount of hydrogen ions in a substance

what do buffers do

* cover strong acids or bases into weak ones
* can release hydrogen ions if pH rises (base)
* can bind hydrogen ions if pH falls (acid)

what is the extracellular matrix

* Substances that act as glue to hold cells together are composed of proteins and polysaccharides
* Substances found outside the cell
* Examples:
* Interstitial fluid: cells are submerged (bathed) in this fluid
* Blood plasma: fluid of blood
* CSF: fluid in the central nervous system

what is the plasma membrane and what are the components

* Acts as a barrier between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid
* Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity by controlling what enters and exits the cell
* Also known as cell membrane
* Consists of membrane lipids that form the lipid bilayer
* Specialized protein membranes float through this fluid membrane, resulting in constantly changing patterns
* Surface sugars for glycocalyx
* Membrane structures help hold cells together through gap junctions

describe integral proteins

* firmly inserted into the membrane
* most are transmembrane proteins
* both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
* hydrophobic regions interact with lipid tails
* hydrophilic interact with water

describe peripheral proteins

* loosely attached to integral proteins
* include filaments on intracellular surface used for plasma membrane support
* function as:
* enzymes
* motor proteins for shape change during cell divisions and muscle contraction
* cell-to-cell communication

what is the major role of glycoproteins and glycolipids

allow cells to identify one another, immunity, recognition of ovum and sperm cell, and intercellular communication

Define diffusion

the tendency of molecules or ions to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration along the concentration gradient

what influences the speed of diffusion

\n

size of particle and temperature

\n

what is tonicity?

\n

the ability of a solution to shrink or swell a cell

\n

hypotonic

\n

a solution with fewer nonpenetrating solutes than the cell \n - Cell swells

hypertonic

\n

a solution with higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than the reference cell \n - cell shrinks

isotonic

a solution with an equal amount of nonpenetrating solutes as the cell

\- Cell stays the same

what are the four classes of connective tissue

* blood
* bone
* cartilage
* connective tissue proper

what are the major functions of connective tissue

* supports
* protects
* insulation
* transportation
* binds other tissues together

what are the 3 main elements of connective tissue

* ground substance: unstructured material that fills the space between cells and contains fibers
* Made up of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans
* GAGs: 'glycosaminoglycans highly (-) are attached and trap water
* Fibers:
* Collagen (white fibers): fibroid protein, cross-linked and extremely tough
* Elastic: contain elastin, which is a rubberlike protein
* Reticular: delicate networks that are continuous of collagen and are abundant where connective tissue is up against another type of tissue
* Cells:
* Each major class has a cell type
* Fibroblast: young, actively mitotic cell that forms the fiber of connective tissue proper
* Chondroblast: actively mitotic cell that forms cartilage
* Osteoblast: actively mitotic cell that forms bone

what is the difference between fibrosis and regeneration?

* Regeneration: replacement of destroyed tissue with the same type of tissue
* Fibrosis: proliferation 'creation' of fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue that replaces original tissue

what is the primary role of all the cartilages

tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock

\n

what are the functions of bone

* supports and protects by enclosing
* provides lever for muscles to act on
* stores calcium and other minerals and fat
* marrow inside bone is the sire for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

what is the roles of blood

\n

transport respiratory gasses, nutrients, wastes, and other substances

\n

what are the 3 types of muscle tissue and what differentiates them?

* skeletal: attached to bones
* cardiac: muscles of heart
* smooth: muscles of walls of hollow organs
* the location of the muscle differentiates them

what are the 6 main functions of skin

* protection
* body temp regulation
* cutaneous sensations
* metabolic function
* blood reservoir
* excretion of waste

describe the 3 barries that contribute to protection via skin

* Chemical barrier: include skin secretions and melanin. Skin has tons of bacteria on its surface and low pH of these secretions slow down bacterial multiplication 'acid mantle'
* Defensins: natural antibiotics that punch holes in bacteria
* Cathelicidins: protective peptides that prevent infection in the skin is wounded
* Physical barrier: continuity of the skin, hardness of keratinized cells and number of layers create an excellent barrier
* Some things can get through: lipid-soluble substances (oxygen, co2, fat-soluble vitamins, steroids), oleoresins (poison ivy, poison oak), organic solvents (paint thinner), salts of heavy metals (lead and mercury). Drugs (nitroglycerine) 
* Biological barrier: include dendritic cells of the epidermis (1st line of defense), macrophages of the dermis (2nd line) and DNA (remarkable sunscreen)

how can the integumentary system contribute to metabolic function

\n

* Synthesizes vitamin D: modified cholesterol molecules are converted to vitamin D precursor (need vitamin D so calcium can be absorbed in the digestive tract)
* Disarms some carcinogens: keratinocyte enzymes
* Steroid hormone activation: transform cortisone applies to the skin into hydrocortisone
* Wrinkle prevention
* Collagenase production

how are eccrine and apocrine sweat glands different

\n

* Eccrine: glands that produce secretions intermittently; secretions do not accumulate in the gland
* Far more than apocrine and are abundant on palms, soles of feet, and forehead
* Apocrine: less numerous and produces a secretion containing water, salts, proteins, fatty acids. **Functions is not well-understood**
* Ceruminous glands: modified apocrine glands found in lining of external ear
* Mammary glands: milk producing glands of the breasts

what's the difference between first, second, and third degree burns

* First degree:
* Epidermal damage only
* Localized redness, edema, and pain
* Second degree:
* Epidermal and upper dermal damage
* Blisters appear

First and second-degree burns are referred to as partial-thickness burns because only the epidermis and upper dermis are involved

* Third degree
* Entire thickness of skin involved
* Skin turns gray-white, cherry red, or blackened
* No edema is seen and area is it painful because nerve endings are destroyed
* Skin grafting usually necessary

what four types of cells are found in the epidermis and what do they do?

1. keratinocytes: produce keratine
2. melanocytes: synthesizes pigment melanin
3. dendritic: (langerhans) protective cell that engulfs antigens, migrate to lymph nodes, and present antigen to T-cells to cause immune response
4. tactile: (merkel) associate with nerve endings function as a sensory receptor for touch

what are dermal ridges

\

enhance the ability to grip providing read. Also amplifies vibration detected by large lamellae corpuscles in the dermis

\

how can nutrition and hormones affect hair growth

\n

hormone imbalance, starvation, and loss of nutrition can cause hair loss or thinning

\n

what are the main functions of bones

\n

* support
* protection
* movement, storage
* blood cell formation
* triglyceride storage
* hormone production

what are the four classification of bones

\n

* Long bones: considerably longer than wide, (femur, radius, tibia, etc.)
* Short bones: roughly cube shaped (bones of wrist and ankle)
* Sesamoid: subcategory of short bone that are flat see shaped bones that lie in a tendon
* Flat bones: thin flattened and usually curved (breastbone, scapulae ribs, and most skull bone)
* Irregular bones: complicated shapes that fit non of the preceding classes (vertebrae, pelvis)

what cells break down bone? what cells build up one?

* Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells that secrete the bone matrix
* Osteoclasts: bone breaking down cell

what is the difference between endochondral and intramembranous ossification?

* Endochondral ossification: a bone develops by **replacing hyaline cartilage** (all bones below the base of the skull are developed by this method)
* Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from a **fibrous membrane** and the bone is called a membrane bone. Ossification begins within fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells

what controls bone remodeling? how?

* Bone remodeling consists of bone deposit and bone resorption
* Occurs at surfaces of both periosteum and endosteum
* Remodeling units: packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate the remodeling process
* how:
* hormonal controls : negative feedback hormonals loop that maintains ionic calcium homeostasis in the blood
* mechanical stress: producing electrical signals when bone is deformed

hormonal controls determine whether and when remodeling occurs in response to changing blood calcium levels, but mechanical stress determines where it occurs

what occurs with osteoporosis? what causes osteoporosis?

* Decreased density and strength of bone resulting from a gradual decrease in rate of bone formation. Bone resorption outpaces bone deposit
* More common in women and risk increases after menopause
* Androgen (men) and estrogen (women) help maintain normal density of the skeleton by restraining osteoclasts and promoting deposit of new bone

Fractures: comminuted

bone fragments into three or more pieces, particularly common in the aged, whose bones are more brittle

Fractures: compression

bone is crushed, common in porous bone subjected to extreme trauma

Fractures: spiral

ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bones, common in sports fracture

Fractures: epiphyseal

separates from the diaphysis along with epiphyseal plate, tense to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix occur

Fractures: depressed

broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture

Fractures: greenstick

bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks, one side of the shaft breaks, the other side bends, common in children; whose bones have relatively more organic matrix and are more flexible than those of adults

how can bones be treated/repaired?

* treatment:
* reduction: the realignment of bone ends
* immobilization
* repair: 4 stages
* hematoma formation
* fibrocartilaginous callus formation
* bony callus formation
* bone remodeling

what is unique about the hyoid bone

\n

only bone in the body that does not articulate directly with another bone

\n

what are the functions of our sinuses

\n

* warm and humidify air
* help lighten skull
* enhance resonance of voice

what is the order of the sections of the spinal vertebrae

* cervical
* thoracic
* lumbar
* sacral
* coccyx

what are the difference between the section of vertebrae

* the amount of vertebrae in each section
* the shape of the vertebrae
* the size of vertebrae
* the function of vertebrae

what are the difference between hips of male and female

* Female:
* titled forward
* broad, shallow, and has grater capacity
* less thickness, bones lighter, thinner, and smoother
* Male:
* tilted less far forward
* Heavier
* narrower and deeper

what are the joints of the skull known as

sutures

what % of body mass does the skeleton account for

\n

20%

what makes up the axial skeleton

* **skull**
* **vertebral column**
* **thoracic cage**

describe the different structural classes, characteristics, types, and joint mobility

* Fibrous:
* Adjoining bones united by collagen fibers
* Suture, syndesmosis, gomphosis
* Immobile
* Cartilaginous:
* Adjoining bones united by cartilage
* Synchondrosis, symphysis
* Immobile and slightly moveable
* Synovial:
* Adjoining bones covered with articular cartilage, separates by a joint cavity, and enclosed within an articular capsule lined with synovial membrane
* plane, condylar, hinge, saddle, ball and socket, pivot
* Freely movable

what do bursa and tendon sheaths do

\n

they reduce friction between adjacent structures during joint activity

\n

describe the 6 distinguishing features of synovial joints

* Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage covering bone ends at moveable joint
* Joint cavity: space that contains a small amount of synovial fluid
* Joint capsule: double layered capsule composed of an outer fibrous layer lined by synovial membrane; encloses the joint cavity of a synovial joint
* Synovial fluid: it is derived largely by filtration from blood flowing through the capillaries in the synovial membrane
* Has an egg-white consistency (comes from the hyaluronic acid) that is secreted by the synovial membrane; lubricates joint surfaces and nourished articular cartilages 
* Reinforcing ligaments: statically stabilized by the # of bandlike ligaments made of dense regular connective tissue
* Nerves and blood vessels: consist of sensory nerve fibers that innervate the capsule, Some detect pain, but most monitor joining \[position and stretch. Extensive capillary network can be found in synovial membrane

describe joint dislocation. What is subluxation

* Bones forced out of alignment
* Accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and difficulty moving joint
* Caused by serious falls or contact sports
* Must be reduced to treat
* Subluxation: partial dislocation of a joint

Osteoarthritis

* Most common type of arthritis
* Irreversible, degenerative
* May reflect excessive release of enzymes that break down articular cartilage
* Cartilage is broken down faster than replaced
* Bones spurs form (osteophytes) may form from thickened ends of bones
* Joints may be stiff and make a crunching noise referred to as crepitus, especially upon rising
* Usually part of normal aging process
* Treatment: moderate activity and mild pain relievers

rheumatoid arthritis

* chronic , inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause
* **Immune system attacks its own cells**
* Usually arises between ages 40 and 50, but may occur at any age; affects about 3 times as many women as men
* Sign and symptoms include: joint pain and swelling, anemia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular problems
* RA begins with inflammation of synovial membrane of affected joint
* Inflammatory blood cells migrate to joint, release inflammatory chemical that destroy tissues
* Synovial fluid accumulates, causing joint swelling
* Inflamed synovial membrane thickens into abnormal pannus tissue that clings to articular cartilage
* Pannus erodes cartilage, scar tissue forms and connects articulating bone ends (ankyloses: stiff condition that can result in bent/deformed fingers)
* treatment includes steroidal and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to decrease pain and inflammation
* disruption od destruction of joints by immune system
* immune suppressants slow autoimmune reaction
* cane replace joint with prosthesis

gouty arthritis

* **Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by inflammation**
* More common in men
* Typically affects joining at base of toe
* In untreated gouty arthritis, bone ends fuse and immobilized joint
* Treatment: drugs, plenty of water avoidance of alcohol and foods high in purine-containing nucleic acids such as livers, kidneys, and sardines.

lymes disease

* causes by bacteria transmitted by tick bites
* symptoms: skin rash, flu-like symptoms, foggy thinking
* may lead to joint pain and arthritis
* Treatment: long term of antibiotics

4 main characteristics of al muscle types

* Excitability: ability of a cell to receive and respond to a stimulus by changing its membrane potential
* Contractibility: ability to shorten forcibly when adequately stimulated
* Extensibility: ability to extend and stretch
* Elasticity: ability of a muscle cell to recoil and resume its resting length after stretching

list the connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle from the outermost to innermost

1. epimysium
2. fascicle
3. perimysium
4. endomysium
5. muscle fiber

depolarization occurring

end plate potential ignites action potential by spreading to adjacent membrane areas and opening voltage-gated sodium channels there. Previous process occurs along the length of the sarcolemma

\n

repolarization occurring

Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channel open which allow K+ to flow out of the cell. This causes the sarcolemma to return to its normal negatively charged condition inside.

\n

what is excitation-contraction coupling

\n

sequence of events by which transmission of an action potential along the sarcolemma leads to the sliding of myofilaments

\n

4 events that must occur for skeletal muscle to contract

\n

* fiber must be activated, aka, stimulated by a nerve ending so that a change in membrane potential occurs
* Action potential, an electrical current must be generated in sarcolemma
* Action potential: a large transient depolarization event, including polarity reversal, that is conducted along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve fiber
* Action potential must be propagated along the entire sarcolemma
* Intracellular Ca2+ levels must rise briefly which provides the final trigger for contraction

how can sarcomere length influence force

\n

the longer the sarcomere the more force is created

\n

what are the 3 mechanisms to generate ATP

\n

* direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
* anaerobic pathway: glycolysis and lactate
* aerobic respiration

Peristalsis

progressive, wavelike contraction that move foodstuff through the alimentary tube organs (or other substance through other hollow organs)

\n

tracts

a collection of axons in the central nervous system having the same origin, termination, and function; a major anatomical passageway

\n

nerves

cell of the nervous system specialized to generate and transmit electrical signals

\n

dendrites

branching neuron process that serves as a receptive, or input, region; transmits an electrical signal toward the cell body

\\n

axon

neuron process; that carries impulses away from the nerve cell body; efferent process; the conducting portion of a nerve cell

\\n

astrocytes

most abundant assist in exchanges between blood capillaries and neurons

\n

microglia

Monitor health can transform into phagocytes in areas of neural damage or inflammation

\n

ependymal

lines the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord; many are ciliated and help circulate cerebrospinal fluid that cushions brain and spinal cord

\n

oligodendrocyte

composes myelin sheaths 'insulating covering'

\n