Western Civilization Final Exam Study Guide

Why was the printing press important? Who invented it and when?

• Ideas spread quickly/reliably

• Record keeping

  • Language standard established

• Books are less expensive

• Controversial ideas are difficult to extinguish

• Literacy rates increase

• In Germany, around 1440, the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press

What were Luther’s main beliefs? (Salvation by faith alone, Bible as sole authority, priesthood of all believers)

• “Printing is God’s Highest Grace”

• 95 theses

  • 95 theses 

  • Wittenberg

  • Luther's opinions about the teachings of the Christian Scripture, also known as the Bible, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church

• Salvation by faith alone

  • Works are necessary for salvation but they do not cause salvation; for faith alone gives life

• Bible authority

  • The SOLE authority

• Priesthood of all believers

  • Protestants believe that through Christ they have been given direct access to God, just like a priest

What was the significance of Luther’s 95 Theses?

• 95 theses 

• Wittenberg

• Luther's opinions about the teachings of the Christian Scripture, also known as the Bible, and practices of the Roman Catholic Church

Who was involved in the Diet of Worms? What was its outcome?

• Luther is asked to recant

  • says no

    • Edict of Worms → Charles 5th (HRE)

      • declared Luther an outlaw

        • princes ignore this Edict

          • because wanted power

What did Calvin believe? (Predestination, theocracy)

• predestination

  • Sinless Society → Geneva

    • No dancing

    • No gambling/card playing

    • No drinking

    • No partying

    • No colorful clothing

      • Establishes the Protestant work ethic

• Calvin followers

  • Presbyterians → Scotland (Knox)

  • Huguenots → France

Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church?

• Had defended Catholicism for Luther

• Married Catherine of Aragon

  • Mary

• Asks Pope for annulment

  • Pope says no

Counter-Reformation

Stop Protestantism

Catholic Reformation

• Need to fix the problems

  • corruption

  • poor practices

  • poor priestly behavior

• Ignatius Loyola 

• Spiritual exercises

• Considered the Pope’s army

• Missions

  • globally

• Schools

  • globally 

• humanist approach

  • classical

  • individualism

Council of Trent: ideas presented.

• Fixes doctrine → centralize

• No more selling indulgences

• 7 sacraments

• Celibacy of clergy

• Pope has authority

  • reforms made

• Faith + good works for salvation

Index of Forbidden Books

• a list of books Catholics were prohibited from reading on pain of excommunication. The books were banned because they contained material considered dangerous or contrary to faith or morals

What was the Edict of Nantes and what was its impact on the Huguenots?

• The Edict of Nantes (1598) granted religious tolerance to Protestants in France, allowing them to practice their faith freely and granting them civil rights, aiming to end the French Wars of Religion.

What was the result of the Treaty of Westphalia?

The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War, granted religious freedom in the Holy Roman Empire, recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland, and reshaped European borders, strengthening countries like France and Sweden. It also marked the rise of the modern system of nation-states

What were the causes and effects of the 30 Years War?

• The Thirty Years' War started in 1618 with the Defenestration of Prague, when Protestant nobles threw Catholic officials out of a window, leading to a religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. It later expanded into a broader European war.

• The Thirty Years' War resulted in a weakened Holy Roman Empire with more autonomy for its territories, and the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland. France and Sweden gained power and territory, while the Peace of Westphalia established religious tolerance and laid the foundation for the modern system of nation-states.

What is capitalism? How were the Dutch impacted by this economic system?

• Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals own businesses and resources, and operate them for profit in competitive markets. The Dutch thrived under early capitalism during the 17th century, becoming global leaders in trade, finance, and maritime power through innovations like the stock exchange and joint-stock companies.

What is mercantilism? How were the Spanish impacted by this economic system?

• Mercantilism is an economic system in which governments seek to increase wealth and power by controlling trade and accumulating gold and silver, often through colonies and strict regulation. The Spanish benefited from mercantilism by extracting vast wealth from their American colonies, especially gold and silver, but this also led to inflation and economic dependency on colonial resources.

How did Elizabeth solve religious and financial problems in England?

How did Elizabeth solve the religious problems of her nation?

• blends Catholic with Anglican

  • act of supremacy

• keeps catholic elements

• priest can marry

• vague prayer 

  • book of common prayer

• creates stability

How did Elizabeth ease the financial problems in England?

• builds crown treasury

• joint stock companies

  • new world

How did Philip II of Spain challenge Elizabeth? (The Armada)

• He tried to suppress Protestant rebels in the Netherlands during the Dutch Revolt, and launched the Spanish Armada against Protestant England to restore Catholicism.

How did Charles I upset Parliament and the Puritans?

• Charles I upset Parliament by dissolving it when it opposed his policies and raising taxes without consent. He also alienated the Puritans by supporting Catholic practices, leading to tensions that sparked the English Civil War.

Who was Oliver Cromwell and who did he lead?

• Oliver Cromwell was the leader of the Parliamentarian forces in the English Civil War. After defeating King Charles I, he became Lord Protector, ruling England as a de facto dictator during the Commonwealth period.

What happened to Charles I?

Charles I was captured during the English Civil War, tried for treason, and found guilty. In 1649, he was executed by beheading, marking the first time a reigning English monarch was publicly executed.

What did James II do to upset Parliament?

• James II upset Parliament by promoting Catholicism, appointing Catholics to key positions, and attempting to rule without Parliament's consent. This led to his deposition in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

What was the Glorious Revolution?

• William III and Mary II replaced James II during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. It’s called "glorious" because it involved minimal bloodshed and was a peaceful transfer of power, with James II fleeing to France rather than fighting.

What was guaranteed in the English Bill of Rights?

• The Bill of Rights (1689) guaranteed Parliamentary supremacy, freedom of speech in Parliament, protection from cruel and unusual punishment, and taxation only with parliamentary consent. It limited the power of the monarchy and solidified England's move toward a constitutional monarchy.

What is absolutism?

• Absolutism is a political system where a ruler holds total power, often justified by the divine right of kings. The monarch has unchecked authority over laws, the government, and the lives of the people.

Why was Versailles important to Louis’ reign?

• Versailles was important to Louis XIV’s reign because it showcased his absolute power and wealth, reinforcing his image as the “Sun King.” By requiring nobles to live at the palace, he weakened their influence at home and kept them under his control.

What were Peter the Great’s accomplishments?

• Peter the Great modernized Russia by introducing Western technology, education, and cultural practices. He also expanded Russian territory, built a strong navy, and founded the new capital city of St. Petersburg to increase trade and connect Russia with Europe.

What ideas and beliefs were challenged during the Scientific Revolution?

• During the Scientific Revolution, traditional beliefs based on ancient authorities like Aristotle and the Church were challenged, particularly the geocentric view that Earth was the center of the universe. Thinkers began to rely on observation, experimentation, and reason, promoting a heliocentric model and laying the foundation for modern science.

What new ideas and beliefs emerged to replace the old during the Scientific Revolution?

• New ideas that emerged during the Scientific Revolution included the heliocentric theory, which placed the Sun at the center of the solar system, and the belief that natural laws govern the universe. The scientific method, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reason, replaced reliance on tradition and religious explanations.

What impact did the advancements of the Scientific Revolution have on society?

• The advancements of the Scientific Revolution transformed society by promoting critical thinking, weakening the authority of the Church in scientific matters, and inspiring new approaches to education and government. These changes laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment and the development of modern science and technology.

Copernicus

• heliocentric theory rather than geocentric theory

• wrote → On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres 

Johannes Kepler

• was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution who is best known for formulating the three laws of planetary motion. His work showed that planets orbit the sun in elliptical paths, not perfect circles, which challenged earlier ideas and supported the heliocentric model proposed by Copernicus.

Galileo

Objects fall/accelerate at the same rate, regardless of weight

Newton

• 17th-century scientist

• Laws of gravitation

• Natural laws are universal, not just on Earth

John Locke

• was an Enlightenment thinker whose ideas greatly influenced modern political philosophy. He believed that all people are born with natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and that governments should protect these rights; if they don’t, citizens have the right to overthrow them.

Thomas Hobbes

• was a political philosopher who believed that people are naturally selfish and need a strong central authority to maintain order. In his work Leviathan, he argued that only an absolute monarchy could prevent chaos and protect society.

Voltaire

• Freedom of thought is of the highest importance

• Argued for natural religion and natural morality (The Christian Institutes were man-made)

• If a gov’t is enlightened, it does not matter how powerful it is, or what form it takes

• Mocked French and Catholic traditional customs 

  • “This is the best of all possible worlds,” Wrote: Candide

Rousseau

• In society as it exists, a good person cannot be happy

• Attacked society, said it was artificial and corrupt; life in a state of nature, were it possible, would be much better

• In civil society all individuals must surrender their natural liberty to each other and fuse their individual will into a combined general will, then agree to accept the rulings of this general will as final. “Man is born free and yet everywhere is in chains” “Everything is good as it leaves the hands of te creator, everything degenerates as it leaves the hands of men” Wrote: Social Contract

Montesquieu

• Forms of gov’t vary according to climate and circumstance

• In a gov’t, power should be divided, and a system of checks and balances is needed. Wrote: On the Spirit of Laws

Diderot

• Encyclopedia 

  • edited by Diderot; compilation of new ideas, technology, math, etc

Descartes

• French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, widely regarded as the father of modern philosophy

  • Discourse on the Method (1637)

    • Developed the method of systematic doubt, questioning everything that could not be known with absolute certainty

Adam Smith

• The economy functions according to 3 natural laws 

  • Laws of supply and demand

  • Law of competition – laissez-faire

  • Law of self-interest

• Economy is best when guided by the “invisible hand”

Wollstonecraft

• Women have reason and therefore should be afforded the same rights as men (education, political voice, economic opportunity) Wrote: Vindication on the Rights of Woman

What were salons?

• Salons were social gatherings, often held in private homes, where intellectuals, writers, artists, and philosophers met to discuss ideas during the Enlightenment. Hosted mainly by wealthy women in France, salons helped spread new political and philosophical ideas across Europe.

What were the important ideas of the Enlightenment? What were the effects of the Enlightenment?

• Important ideas of the Enlightenment included reason, individual freedom, equality, separation of powers, and the belief in progress and human rights. Thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau promoted ideas such as democracy, religious tolerance, and the social contract.

• Effects of the Enlightenment were widespread: it inspired revolutions (like the American and French), weakened the power of absolute monarchies and the Church, and laid the foundation for modern democratic governments and legal systems based on individual rights and reason.

What are the stages of a revolution?

• Initial unrest — People become dissatisfied with the current government or social conditions.

• Rising tension — Protests, debates, and conflicts increase as demands for change grow.

• Revolutionary outbreak — Open rebellion or uprising occurs against the existing authority.

• Conflict and struggle — Fighting or political battles happen between revolutionaries and the established powers.

• Resolution and change — The old system is overthrown or reformed, leading to new leadership or government.

• Aftermath and consolidation — The new order is established, and society adjusts to the changes made.

How was the French Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment?

• The French Revolution was inspired by Enlightenment ideas that emphasized liberty, equality, and the rights of individuals. Thinkers like Rousseau and Locke challenged absolute monarchy and promoted popular sovereignty, inspiring revolutionaries to demand democracy, justice, and an end to social inequalities.

Long term causes of the French Revolution

• The French Revolution was caused by long-term issues like social inequality, Enlightenment ideas, and absolute monarchy, along with immediate problems such as a financial crisis and food shortages. Tensions came to a head in 1789 when the Third Estate broke away to form the National Assembly, demanding political change.

Destruction of The Old regime

• The revolutionaries tried to destroy the power of the Old Regime by ending the privileges of the First and Second Estates, abolishing feudalism, and taking land from the Church. They also created a new government, wrote a constitution, and declared all men equal under the law through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Louis XVI

• Louis XVI was the King of France during the French Revolution. He is known for his absolute monarchy, lavish spending, and inability to effectively address France’s financial crisis. His resistance to reform and growing public anger led to his downfall—he was eventually arrested, tried for treason, and executed by guillotine in 1793. His reign marked the end of absolute monarchy in France and helped usher in democratic ideals inspired by the Enlightenment.

Marie Antoinette

• Marie Antoinette was the Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI. She became a symbol of the monarchy’s excess and disconnect from the struggles of the common people, especially during France’s financial crisis. Known for the (likely apocryphal) quote "Let them eat cake," she was seen as extravagant and uncaring. Like her husband, she was arrested during the French Revolution and executed by guillotine in 1793. Her life and death became powerful symbols of the fall of the monarchy and the rise of revolutionary ideals.

The Old Regime/3 Estates

• 1st estate → clergy

• 2nd → Nobles

• 3rd → everyone else

The Estates General

• The Estates General was a legislative assembly in pre-revolutionary France, made up of representatives from the three social classes, or estates: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners). It was called by the king to discuss and approve reforms, but its unequal representation and voting system contributed to tensions that helped trigger the French Revolution.

National Assembly

• It was formed by representatives of the Third Estate (the common people) who, frustrated with the traditional voting system of the Estates-General, declared themselves the National Assembly on June 17, 1789

Tennis Court Oath

• June 20th 1789

  • The 3rd estate declares itself the National Assembly

  • Demand a new constitution

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on considerations of the common good. Every political association's aim is to preserve the natural and imprescriptible rights of Man. These rights are Liberty, Property, Safety, and Resistance to Oppression

Bastille

• July 14th 1789

  • gain gun powder

  • FIRST VIOLENCE

The Women’s March on Versailles

took place in October 1789, was a pivotal event during the French Revolution where thousands of women, frustrated by food shortages and high bread prices, marched from Paris to the royal palace at Versailles. They demanded bread and forced King Louis XVI and his family to move to Paris, bringing the monarchy closer to the people and increasing revolutionary pressure.

Jacobins & Girondins

• Jacobins 

  • radicals

    • The king should die 

    • Republic most important

• Girondins

  • moderates

    • king should live but w/ Republic

Robespierre

• Maximilien Robespierre was a key leader during the French Revolution and a major figure in the Reign of Terror. A strong supporter of Enlightenment ideas like equality and justice, he believed that terror was necessary to protect the revolution and achieve a "republic of virtue." Under his leadership, thousands were executed as enemies of the revolution. Eventually, Robespierre himself was arrested and guillotined in 1794, marking the end of the Reign of Terror.

Reign of Terror

• a period of violence and political upheaval during the French Revolution, marked by mass executions and a climate of fear

Guillotine

• a machine with a heavy blade sliding vertically in grooves, used for beheading people.

The Committee of Public Safety

• The Committee of Public Safety was a powerful group created during the French Revolution in 1793 to protect the new republic from internal and external enemies. Led by figures like Robespierre, it oversaw the Reign of Terror, using harsh measures—including executions—to suppress opposition and maintain revolutionary control.

Why is the French Revolution significant to Western history?

• The French Revolution is significant to Western history because it challenged the old regime of absolute monarchy and feudal privileges, promoting ideas of democracy, equality, and human rights. It inspired later revolutions and shaped modern political systems by spreading concepts like popular sovereignty, citizenship, and the rule of law.

How and why did Napoleon come to power? (The Directory)

• The Directory

  • a five-member committee that governed France from November 1795 to November 1799, failed to reform the disastrous economy, relied heavily on army and violence, and represented another turn towards dictatorship during the French Revolution

What led to Napoleon’s downfall? (Russia, Continental System, 100 Days)

• Napoleon’s downfall was caused by several key factors: his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, where his army suffered massive losses due to harsh winter and scorched-earth tactics; the failure of the Continental System, his economic blockade against Britain, which hurt European economies and weakened his alliances; and finally, his return during the Hundred Days in 1815 ended with his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, leading to his exile and the end of his rule.

What were Napoleon’s positive contributions to Western Civ.? (The Napoleonic Codes)?

• Napoleonic Code

  • gave France a single set of laws

  • abolished the 3 estates of the old regime

    • meritocracy

  • Equality under the law

  • Limited liberty

    • censorship

    • Women lost the right to own property

    • slavery in French colonies

How did Europe attempt to restore the balance of power after Napoleon’s conquests? (Congress of Vienna)

• After Napoleon’s defeat, European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 to restore the balance of power and prevent future wars. They redrew borders, restored monarchies, and created a system of alliances to maintain stability and contain any revolutionary or expansionist threats.

What was the Enclosure Movement? What was the Agricultural Revolution? How did these things lead to the Industrial Revolution?

• The Enclosure Movement was the process in 18th-century England where common lands were fenced off and privatized, allowing landowners to farm more efficiently but displacing many small farmers. 

• The Agricultural Revolution involved improvements in farming techniques, such as crop rotation and new machinery, which greatly increased food production.

• Together, these changes boosted agricultural productivity, freed up labor by pushing displaced farmers into cities, and provided the food and workforce needed to fuel the Industrial Revolution.

Where did the Industrial Revolution begin? Why did it start there?

• The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 18th century because of several factors: abundant natural resources like coal and iron, a strong banking system and capital for investment, political stability, a growing population, and access to colonies for raw materials and markets. Additionally, innovations in agriculture and technology created the right conditions for industrial growth.

What were the positive impacts of the Industrial Revolution? (Unions, Labor Laws)

• Positive impacts of the Industrial Revolution included the growth of labor unions, which gave workers a collective voice to fight for better wages, hours, and conditions. It also led to the creation of labor laws that improved workplace safety, limited child labor, and established fairer working hours, helping to protect workers’ rights and improve their quality of life over time.

How did cities change as a result of the Industrial Revolution?

• Cities grew rapidly during the Industrial Revolution as people moved from rural areas seeking factory jobs, leading to urbanization. This rapid growth often resulted in overcrowded housing, poor sanitation, and polluted environments, but also spurred the development of new infrastructure like roads, railways, and public services.

What class tensions arose because of the Industrial Revolution?

• The Industrial Revolution created sharp class tensions between the wealthy industrial capitalists who owned factories and the growing working class, who faced long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions. These inequalities sparked social unrest, labor strikes, and calls for reforms to improve workers’ rights and living conditions.

Communism

• Marx + Engels

• 1848

• Class struggle is all of history

• History is linear

• 2 classes by the 19th century

  • Proletariat

  • Bourgeoisie

• Process to achieve Communism

  • goal→total equality

    • No private property

    • Utopia

  • The proletariat is exploited by the Bourgeoisie

  • The proletariat will unite and overthrow the Bourgeoisie

    • violent/bloody

  • Dictatorship → Proteleteriate re-creates society

    • No concern for individual needs

  • Utopia 

    • no government

      • because it's not needed

    • Everyone lives in harmony

Socialism

• The government makes reforms and maybe owns some things to help improve the lives of workers 

  • public education

    • primary grades

  • public healthcare

Imperialism

• a policy or practice where a nation extends its power and influence over other territories, often through military force, political control, or economic domination

• European Power spread

• Industrial Revolution

  • markets for finished goods

  • source for raw materials

• European nationalism

• missionary activity

• military and naval bases

• European racism

  • social darwinism

    • “white man's burden”

• Places dump unwanted/excess population

• social and economic opportunities

• humanitarian reasons

Social Darwinism

• Europeans are “more fit” and thus should be allowed to run the world

• justifies imperialism

  • “white man's burden”

How did Nationalism contribute to the unification of nations and World War II

• Nationalism contributed to the unification of nations like Germany and Italy in the 19th century by inspiring people with shared language, culture, and history to come together under one nation-state. Later, in the 20th century, extreme nationalism played a major role in causing World War II, as aggressive nationalist leaders like Hitler in Germany sought to expand territory, assert racial superiority, and undo the outcomes of World War I.

Realpolitik

• Realism over idealism

• pragmatic overachievingof an ideal

How did Bismarck create a unified Germany? 

Bismarck achieved German unification through a combination of shrewd diplomacy, strategic warfare, and leveraging a growing sense of German nationalism.

bismark

• Prime Minister of Prussia

• Blood + Iron

  • industrialization → built factories → wealthy

  • War with Denmark, Austria, and France

  • creates German Nationalism

Franco-Prussian War

1870

11/9/18 → Kaiser Wilheim abdicates

• November 11 (Veterans Day) → Armistice signed

  • End of World War I 11/11/1918 

Mazzini

• inspired a love to the idea of Italy

  • nationalist

    • starts a revolution in 1848 to create a unified Italy

Cavour → Prime Minister of Piedmont - Sardinia

• Brain

• plan to unify → Italy will unify around King Victor Emmanuel

  • Lots of economic development for Piedmont/Sardinia

Garibaldi → sword

• helps win Military operations to unify

• By 1871 → Italy becomes unified under King Victor Emmanuel

How did the 19th Century pave the way for World War I? (Kaiser Wilhelm II, Balance of Power, rising tensions)

• The 19th century paved the way for World War I through a mix of nationalism, militarism, and shifting alliances. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany abandoned Bismarck's careful diplomacy, built up the German military, and pursued aggressive foreign policies, which disrupted the balance of power in Europe. Rising tensions among major powers, imperial rivalries, and a web of alliances created a situation where a small conflict could trigger a large-scale war—as it did in 1914.

What were the immediate and long term causes of World War I? (Militarism, Alliances, Nationalism, Imperialism, Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand)

• Militarism → build up of arms → glory in war

• Alliances → Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

  Triple Entente

  Russia, Great Britain, and France

• Imperialism → rivalry to gain colonies and power

• Nationalism → rivalry groups demanding there own Nation

  → supporters with big power (Russia)

• Industrialization → changes warfare

• Assassination →France Ferdinand → Arch-duke A-H → June 28th, 1914

Who made up the Triple Entente (Allied Powers) and the Triple Alliance (Central Powers)? Why were these alliances significant to the war?

•  Triple Alliance

  • Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

• Triple Entente

  • Russia, Great Britain, and France 

• Central Powers vs. Allied Powers

  • In World War I, the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria) were pitted against the Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and later the United States). The Allies ultimately won the war, which ended in 1918

Schlieffen Plan

• Germany wants to avoid the front line

• Germany attacked both Belgium and France

• U.K. joins fight

Battle of the Marne---results

• stopped schlieffen plan

• STALEMATE

Gallipoli---purpose & outcome 

• 1915

  • Purpose

    • help re-supply Russia

  • ANZAC

Verdun (1916)

•  one of the longest and bloodiest battles, symbolizing French determination and the devastating human cost of trench warfare.

The Somme (1916)

•  highlighted the futility of frontal assaults, with over a million casualties and little territorial gain.

What were some of the new weapons used in WWI? What was their impact on the war?

• Machine guns

• Barbed wire

• Poison gas

• Tanks

• Airplanes (1st time in war)

• Submarines → U-boats (what they were called at the time)

How was unrestricted submarine warfare used in WWI?

• Unrestricted submarine warfare was used by Germany in World War I to sink enemy and neutral ships without warning, aiming to cut off supplies to Britain and its allies. This strategy, especially the sinking of ships like the Lusitania with American passengers aboard, angered the United States and was a major factor in its decision to enter the war in 1917.

What was the significance of the Zimmerman Telegram/Note?

• 1917, Germany began unrestricted sub warfare again

• sent message to Mexico that they would help them get territory in US

• US declares war against German (April 1917)

• ALSO…Czar in Russia was out…SO president Wilson claims America must join the war to “make the world safe for democracy”

What problems did Russia face at the beginning of the 20th century?

• At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia faced serious problems including widespread poverty, poor working conditions, and a growing gap between the rich and poor. The country was also politically unstable, with autocratic rule under the tsar, rising revolutionary movements, and major military defeats like the Russo-Japanese War, all of which weakened the government and fueled unrest.

What happened to Russia during WWI? How did WWI trigger the Russian Revolution?

• During World War I, Russia suffered massive military losses, food shortages, and economic collapse, which led to widespread anger and suffering among soldiers and civilians. The war exposed the weakness of the tsarist regime, and in 1917, this frustration triggered the Russian Revolution, leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the rise of the Bolsheviks, and eventually Russia’s withdrawal from the war.

Lenin

•  Leader of the Bolsheviks, architect of the revolution.

Trotsky

• Key organizer of the Red Army and the October Revolution.