Key Figures and Ideas of the Enlightenment Era

A Treatise of Human Nature

David Hume's work on empiricism, skepticism, and human psychology.

Adam Smith

Economist and philosopher, key figure in classical economics.

The Theory of Moral Sentiments

Smith's work on moral philosophy and sympathy as the basis of ethics.

Thomas Reid

Founder of the Scottish Common Sense school of philosophy, critic of Hume.

Claude-Adrien Hélvetius

Philosopher advocating that all human behavior stems from self-interest.

Étienne Bonnot de Condillac

Philosopher who emphasized the role of sensation in knowledge.

Bernard Mandeville

Economist and philosopher who argued that private vices benefit public prosperity.

The Fable of the Bees

Mandeville's satirical work showing how selfishness drives economic growth.

Francis Hutcheson

Scottish philosopher advocating moral sense theory.

The Physiocrats

French economists who emphasized agriculture as the source of wealth.

François Quesnay

Leading Physiocrat, developed Tableau Économique.

The Tableau Économique

Quesnay's economic model illustrating wealth flow in an economy.

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot

French economist and statesman advocating free trade and tax reform.

Laissez-faire

Economic principle promoting minimal government intervention.

The Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith's foundational work on free markets and division of labor.

Guillaume-Thomas Raynal

Historian critical of European colonialism and slavery.

The History of the Two Indies

Raynal's book criticizing European imperialism and colonial exploitation.

Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville

Diderot's work critiquing European colonial attitudes and morality.

St. Domingue

France's wealthiest Caribbean colony, later Haiti, site of a major slave revolt.

Le Code Noir

French decree regulating slavery in colonies.

The Royal African Company

British company monopolizing the transatlantic slave trade.

Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade

British abolitionist group pushing for the end of slavery.

The Society of the Friends of the Blacks

French group advocating for the abolition of slavery.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian criminologist advocating for justice reform and against torture.

On Crimes and Punishments

Beccaria's work calling for humane legal systems and abolition of capital punishment.

Nakaz, or Instructions to the Legislative Commission

Catherine the Great's legal document promoting Enlightenment reforms in Russia.

The Adventures of Telemachus

A novel by François Fénelon criticizing absolute monarchy.

The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns

A literary and cultural debate in 17th-18th century France over classical vs. modern values.

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister to Louis XIII, strengthened royal power and centralized France.

Cardinal Mazarin

Successor to Richelieu, helped Louis XIV consolidate power.

The Fronde

Series of civil wars (1648-1653) challenging royal authority in France.

L'Etat c'est moi

"I am the state," attributed to Louis XIV, symbolizing absolute monarchy.

The Hall of Mirrors

Grand gallery in the Palace of Versailles, a symbol of royal power.

The Sun King

Louis XIV's title, reflecting his absolute rule.

Dirigisme

State-directed economic policy in France.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Louis XIV's finance minister, promoted mercantilism.

The Royal Intendants

Officials enforcing royal authority in French provinces.

The Parlement of Paris

High court resisting royal policies in France.

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet

Advocate of divine right monarchy.

François Fénelon

Critic of Louis XIV's rule, author of The Adventures of Telemachus.

The Nobility of the Robe

Non-military nobles who gained status through administrative service.

The Third Estate

Commoners in pre-revolutionary France.

The War of the Grand Alliance

Conflict (1688-1697) against Louis XIV's expansion.

The War of the Spanish Succession

War (1701-1714) over Spanish throne succession.

The Peace of Utrecht

Treaty (1713-1714) ending the War of the Spanish Succession, curbing French power.

Frederick William I

Prussian king, strengthened the military and bureaucracy.

Frederick II

"Frederick the Great," Prussian king who expanded the state.

The First Servant of the State

Frederick II's view on monarchy as a duty to the people.

Cameralism

German economic policy favoring strong state intervention.

The Junkers

Prussian nobility, key to military and bureaucracy.

Peter the Great

Russian czar who modernized and expanded Russia.

The Table of Ranks

Russian system ranking nobles by service rather than birth.

Catherine II

"Catherine the Great," expanded Russian power and reformed government.

Maria Theresa

Austrian empress, strengthened central authority.

Joseph II

Enlightened Austrian ruler, pursued radical reforms.

The Long Parliament

English Parliament (1640-1660) challenging royal authority.

The Restoration

Return of Charles II to the English throne (1660).

Charles II

Restored English king, known for tolerance and patronage of arts.

James II

Catholic English king deposed in the Glorious Revolution.

The Glorious Revolution

Overthrow of James II (1688), establishing constitutional monarchy.

The English Bill of Rights

1689 document limiting royal power, ensuring parliamentary sovereignty.

John Locke

Philosopher of liberalism and government by consent.

The Second Treatise of Government

Locke's work advocating natural rights and government by contract.

The Fiscal-Military State

System funding standing armies through taxation.

The Bank of England

Established in 1694 to stabilize finances and support war efforts.

The London Royal Exchange

Hub of finance and trade in England.

The Act of Settlement

1701 law ensuring Protestant succession to the English throne.

Acts of Union

1707 and 1801 acts uniting Scotland, England, and later Ireland.

Queen Anne

Last Stuart monarch, oversaw the Acts of Union.

George I

First Hanoverian king of Britain, relied on ministers.

Robert Walpole

Britain's first Prime Minister, known for stabilizing government.

The South Sea Bubble

1720 financial crisis from speculative stock trading.

The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge

Leading scientific institution.

The Académie des sciences

French scientific academy.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher promoting empirical scientific method.

Induction

Reasoning from observation to general principles.

The New Organon

Bacon's work on scientific methodology.

The Idols of the Mind

Bacon's concept of cognitive biases.

Nullius in verba

Royal Society's motto, meaning 'Take nobody's word for it.'

The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

First scientific journal.

Pyrrhonian Skepticism

Extreme doubt about knowledge.

René Descartes

Philosopher of rationalism and dualism.

The Discourse on Method

Descartes' work outlining rationalist philosophy.

Cogito ergo sum

'I think, therefore I am.'

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Locke's work on empiricism.

Thinking Matter

Locke's idea that matter could think.

Tabula rasa

Locke's concept of the mind as a blank slate.

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

Galileo's defense of heliocentrism.

Tourbillons

Descartes' theory of planetary motion.

Isaac Newton

Physicist, formulated laws of motion and gravity.

Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica

Newton's foundational physics work.

Voltaire

Enlightenment writer and critic of the Church.

The Letter on Locke

Voltaire's praise of Locke's philosophy.

The Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

Voltaire's work promoting Newtonian science.

Emilie du Châtelet

Physicist, translated Newton's Principia into French.

Grub Street

London's literary underworld.

Bildungsroman

Novel focused on personal development.

Philosophical Tale / Conte philosophique

Fiction used to convey philosophical ideas.

The Encyclopédie

Diderot's and d'Alembert's massive Enlightenment work.

The Philosophes

Intellectuals promoting reason and reform.