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What is the main function of the kidneys?
To filter blood and remove waste products like urea.
What is urea?
A waste product formed from the breakdown of amino acids in the liver.
What is selective reabsorption?
The reabsorption of useful substances like glucose, ions and water in the kidney.
What is ultrafiltration?
The process of filtering blood under high pressure in the glomerulus of the kidney.
What does the Bowman's capsule do?
It collects the filtrate from the glomerulus in the nephron.
What is the role of the nephron?
To filter blood and reabsorb useful substances.
What hormone controls water reabsorption in the kidney?
ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
Where is ADH released from?
The pituitary gland.
What does ADH do?
Increases the permeability of kidney tubules to reabsorb more water.
What happens to ADH levels when you're dehydrated?
They increase to conserve water.
What is dialysis?
A process to remove waste and excess substances from the blood when kidneys fail.
How often is dialysis usually required?
Several times a week.
One disadvantage of dialysis?
It is time-consuming and expensive.
What is a kidney transplant?
Replacing a failed kidney with a healthy donor kidney.
Why are immunosuppressants used after a transplant?
To prevent rejection of the new kidney.
One advantage of a kidney transplant?
Allows a more normal life and is cheaper in the long term.
What does adrenaline do?
Increases heart rate, boosts oxygen and glucose supply to the brain and muscles.
Where is adrenaline produced?
Adrenal glands.
What does thyroxine do?
Regulates metabolism, heart rate and temperature.
What is negative feedback?
A mechanism that returns internal conditions to normal.
What is FSH and what does it do?
Follicle Stimulating Hormone – stimulates egg maturation and oestrogen production.
What is LH and what does it do?
Luteinising Hormone – triggers ovulation.
What is IVF?
In vitro fertilisation – fertilisation of eggs outside the body.
One disadvantage of IVF?
Emotionally and physically stressful with low success rate.
What is a fertility drug?
A drug containing FSH and LH to stimulate egg release.
What hormone maintains the uterus lining?
Progesterone.
What is auxin?
A plant hormone that controls growth towards light and gravity.
What is phototropism?
Growth of a plant in response to light.
What is gravitropism?
Growth of a plant in response to gravity.
Where is auxin produced?
In the tips of shoots and roots.
What is ethene used for in agriculture?
To control fruit ripening.
What is gibberellin used for?
To stimulate seed germination and increase fruit size.
What is thermoregulation?
Maintaining a constant internal body temperature.
What detects temperature change in the body?
The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus.
What happens to blood vessels during vasodilation?
They widen to increase blood flow and lose heat.
What happens to blood vessels during vasoconstriction?
They narrow to reduce blood flow and retain heat.
Why do we sweat?
To lose heat through evaporation.
What response occurs when we're too cold?
Shivering to generate heat.
Why do hairs stand up when cold?
To trap a layer of insulating air.
What is a normal human body temperature?
Around 37°C.
What is a genetic disorder?
A disease caused by faulty alleles of genes.
What type of allele causes cystic fibrosis?
A recessive allele.
What type of allele causes polydactyly?
A dominant allele.
What does it mean to be a carrier of a genetic disorder?
Has one faulty allele but does not show symptoms.
What is embryo screening?
Testing embryos for genetic disorders.
One advantage of embryo screening?
Reduces chance of inherited disease.
One ethical concern of embryo screening?
May lead to selection of traits or loss of embryos.
What is PGD?
Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis – screening embryos during IVF.
What is a Punnett square?
A diagram to predict genetic outcomes from crosses.
What does a family tree show?
How genetic conditions are inherited across generations.
In a genetic diagram, what do capital letters represent?
Dominant alleles.
In a genetic diagram, what do lowercase letters represent?
Recessive alleles.
What is a genotype?
The combination of alleles an individual has.
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics expressed by those alleles.
What is homozygous?
Having two of the same alleles.
What is heterozygous?
Having two different alleles.
What did Gregor Mendel study?
Inheritance in pea plants.
What was Mendel’s key discovery?
That characteristics are inherited through dominant and recessive factors.
Why was Mendel’s work not accepted at first?
Genes and DNA had not yet been discovered.
How did later scientists validate Mendel’s ideas?
Through understanding of chromosomes and DNA.
What is genetic engineering?
Modifying an organism's DNA to include desired traits.
What is a genetically modified organism (GMO)?
An organism with altered genes from another species.
One example of a GM crop?
Golden rice or herbicide-resistant maize.
One advantage of GM crops?
Higher yields or added nutrients.
One concern about GM crops?
Potential effects on health or biodiversity.
What is adult cell cloning?
Creating a genetically identical organism from an adult cell.
What are the steps in adult cell cloning?
Remove nucleus, insert into empty egg, stimulate with electricity.
What is the role of an electric shock in cloning?
Triggers cell division.
What is a clone?
An organism genetically identical to another.
What is tissue culture?
Growing tiny pieces of plants in sterile conditions.
One benefit of tissue culture?
Rapid production of identical plants.
What is a use of plant cloning in agriculture?
To produce disease-resistant or high-yield crops.
What are the ethical issues of cloning animals?
Reduced variation and animal welfare concerns.
What is protein synthesis?
The process of making proteins from DNA instructions.
What molecule carries the code from DNA to ribosome?
mRNA.
Where does protein synthesis occur?
In the ribosomes.
What do ribosomes use to assemble proteins?
Amino acids.
What is the role of tRNA in protein synthesis?
Transfers amino acids to ribosomes and matches the mRNA codons.
What is the relationship between genes and proteins?
Genes code for specific proteins.
Why are proteins important?
They control cell structure, enzymes, hormones and more.
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a constant internal environment.
What three conditions does homeostasis regulate?
Temperature, water level, and blood glucose level.
What is a receptor?
A cell that detects stimuli.
What is an effector?
A muscle or gland that carries out a response.
What are the main parts of the nervous system?
Brain, spinal cord, sensory and motor neurons.
What is the role of the CNS?
Processes information and coordinates responses.
What is a synapse?
The gap between two neurons where chemicals transfer impulses.
What is a reflex?
A fast, automatic response to a stimulus.
Give an example of a reflex.
Pulling your hand away from something hot.
What is the correct order of the reflex arc?
Stimulus → Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron → Motor neuron → Effector → Response
What is the endocrine system?
A system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.
What is the master gland?
The pituitary gland.
Name 3 glands in the endocrine system.
Pituitary, pancreas, adrenal.
What hormone does the pancreas produce?
Insulin.
What does insulin do?
Lowers blood glucose levels.
What does glucagon do?
Raises blood glucose levels.
What is type 1 diabetes?
A condition where the pancreas doesn’t produce insulin.
How is type 1 diabetes treated?
Insulin injections.
What is type 2 diabetes?
A condition where the body stops responding to insulin.
How is type 2 diabetes managed?
With diet, exercise, and sometimes medication.