Time Period 1 (1200-1450)

• Byzantine Empire:

  • The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was launched by western European knights to retake Jerusalem from Muslim control, but it ended up sacking Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This weakened the empire and allowed various European states to establish their own kingdoms in the eastern Mediterranean.

  • The Empire faced various threats from the Ottoman Turks, who gradually gained power in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and began to encroach on Byzantine territories in the Balkans and elsewhere. The Battle of Manzikert in 1071 was a major turning point in the Byzantine-Ottoman conflict.

  • The Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty (1261-1453) attempted various reforms and alliances to counter Ottoman aggression, including efforts to improve relations with the Latin West and seeking aid from European powers like Venice and Genoa.

  • The Empire's economy relied heavily on trade, especially with Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa, which had established extensive commercial networks in the eastern Mediterranean. The Empire also produced a variety of goods, including textiles, ceramics, and luxury items like silks and precious metals.

  • The Empire's cultural and intellectual achievements included the development of the Byzantine style of art and architecture, which blended classical Greek and Roman elements with Christian motifs, as well as contributions to fields like philosophy, theology, and science. The Byzantine Empire was also home to several renowned universities, such as the University of Constantinople.

  • The Byzantine Empire was the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which played an important role in shaping the religious and cultural identity of the empire's subjects. The Empire also had complex relationships with other Christian churches, including the Latin (Roman Catholic) Church in the West and various Orthodox churches in the Balkans and elsewhere.

  • The Empire experienced significant internal political and social turmoil, including conflicts between the aristocracy and the emperor, religious disputes, and tensions between different ethnic and linguistic groups within the Empire.

  • In 1453, the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II besieged Constantinople, which was defended by a smaller force of Byzantine soldiers and foreign mercenaries. After a protracted siege, the Ottomans breached the city's walls and captured Constantinople, effectively ending the Byzantine Empire. The fall of Constantinople was a major event in world history, marking the end of the medieval period and the beginning of the Early Modern era.

• Ottoman Empire:

  • The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in 1299, when he declared independence from the Seljuk Turks.

  • The early Ottomans were a small, nomadic tribe that gradually gained power by raiding neighboring territories and absorbing other Turkish tribes.

  • In the 14th century, the Ottomans began to expand their territory by conquering Byzantine and Bulgarian lands.

  • The most significant early Ottoman ruler was Mehmed I (r. 1413-1421), who established a strong central government and a standing army.

  • During the reign of Murad II (r. 1421-1451), the Ottomans continued to expand their territory and established a strong navy.

  • In 1453, the Ottomans captured Constantinople (now Istanbul) and ended the Byzantine Empire.

  • The Ottomans practiced a form of Islam that was influenced by Sufism and included elements of traditional Turkish shamanism.

  • The Ottoman state was organized around the concept of the millet system, which allowed for some degree of religious and ethnic autonomy within the empire.

  • The Ottomans were known for their skilled military tactics, including the use of janissaries (elite soldiers who were recruited from Christian families and converted to Islam) and the development of new weapons such as the musket.

  • The Ottoman Empire was a major economic power in the region, with a thriving trade network that included the Silk Road and the Mediterranean.

  • The Ottomans were also known for their impressive architecture and art, including the construction of the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul and the creation of beautiful ceramic tiles and textiles.

• Mongol Empire:

  • The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, who united the Mongol tribes and conquered neighboring territories.

  • The Mongols were known for their military prowess and tactics, including their use of horseback archery and their ability to rapidly move and communicate over long distances.

  • Under Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongol Empire expanded rapidly, conquering much of Eurasia, including China, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.

  • The Mongols were also known for their tolerance of different religions and cultures, allowing conquered peoples to retain their own beliefs and traditions.

  • The Mongol Empire was divided into four regional khanates after the death of Genghis Khan, with each khanate ruled by one of his sons or grandsons.

  • The most well-known of these khanates was the Yuan Dynasty in China, which was founded by Kublai Khan in 1271 and lasted until 1368.

  • The Mongols played a significant role in the spread of the bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, which ravaged Eurasia in the 14th century and killed an estimated 75-200 million people.

  • The decline of the Mongol Empire began in the mid-14th century, with internal divisions and external pressures contributing to its eventual collapse.

  • The last Mongol Khanate, the Golden Horde in Russia, fell to the rising power of Moscow in the late 15th century, marking the end of the Mongol Empire.

• Abbasid Caliphate:

  • The Abbasid Empire was a Muslim caliphate that succeeded the Umayyad Empire in 750 CE.

  • Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became the capital and center of the Islamic world, and the empire became a center of learning, culture, and trade.

  • The Abbasids continued to expand their empire during the 8th and 9th centuries, conquering territories in North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia.

  • The Abbasid caliphs were initially more tolerant of non-Arab and non-Muslim peoples than their Umayyad predecessors, but they also faced challenges from rival Muslim groups and political factions.

  • The period of the Abbasid Empire from the 9th to the 13th century is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, characterized by significant advances in science, mathematics, literature, and art.

  • During this period, scholars translated and preserved ancient Greek and Roman texts, and made significant advances in fields such as medicine, astronomy, and chemistry.

  • The Abbasid Empire declined in the 10th and 11th centuries, with political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces contributing to its weakening.

  • The Crusades, a series of military campaigns launched by Christian Europe against Muslim territories in the Holy Land, also had a significant impact on the Abbasid Empire.

  • The Mongol Empire conquered Baghdad in 1258, marking the end of the Abbasid caliphate and the beginning of a period of Mongol rule over much of the Islamic world.

  • Despite the decline of the Abbasid Empire, its legacy continued to shape Islamic culture, politics, and society for centuries to come.

• Seljuk Empire:

  • The Seljuk Empire was a Turkic Muslim state that emerged in the 11th century in Central Asia.

  • The Seljuks were initially vassals of the Abbasid caliphs, but they eventually gained independence and established a powerful empire that spanned much of the Middle East, Anatolia, and Central Asia.

  • The Seljuk Empire was known for its military strength, and its armies played a significant role in the Crusades, fighting against Christian armies from Europe.

  • The Seljuks also patronized the arts, literature, and scholarship, and their empire became a center of Islamic learning and culture.

  • However, the Seljuk Empire declined in the 12th and 13th centuries, due to political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Mongols.

  • One of the most significant events in the history of the Seljuk Empire was the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, in which the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine Empire and opened up Anatolia for Turkish settlement.

  • The Seljuk Empire was also known for its architectural achievements, including the construction of numerous mosques, madrasas, and other public buildings.

  • The Seljuk Empire played an important role in the spread of Islam in Central Asia and Anatolia.

• Delhi Sultanate:

  • The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim state that ruled over much of northern India from 1206 to 1526.

  • The Delhi Sultanate was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a Turkish slave general who was appointed as the governor of Delhi by the Ghurid Empire.

  • The Delhi Sultanate was known for its military strength, and its armies successfully repelled Mongol invasions and expanded the empire through conquests of neighboring territories.

  • The Delhi Sultanate was also a center of Islamic learning, and numerous madrasas and other educational institutions were established throughout the empire.

  • The Delhi Sultanate was ruled by a series of dynasties, including the Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, and Sayyid dynasties.

  • During the reign of the Khilji dynasty in the 13th and 14th centuries, the Delhi Sultanate reached its peak of power and expanded to include much of northern and central India.

  • The Delhi Sultanate was known for its architecture, including the construction of numerous mosques, tombs, and other public buildings, many of which combined elements of Islamic and Hindu architectural styles.

  • The Delhi Sultanate also had a significant impact on Indian society, culture, and religion, introducing new ideas and practices from the Islamic world and leading to the syncretism of Hindu and Islamic traditions.

  • The Delhi Sultanate declined in the 14th and 15th centuries, due to political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Timurid Empire.

  • The decline of the Delhi Sultanate paved the way for the rise of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century, which would unify much of India under Muslim rule.

• Vijayanagara Empire:

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was a South Indian empire that ruled over much of the Deccan plateau from 1336 to 1646.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka, two brothers who had previously served as governors under the Hoysala Empire.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was known for its military strength, and its armies successfully repelled invasions by the Bahmani Sultanate and other neighboring powers.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was also a center of Hindu culture, and its rulers patronized the arts, literature, and scholarship.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was characterized by a unique style of temple architecture, known as the Vijayanagara style, which blended elements of Dravidian and Indo-Islamic architecture.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak of power and prosperity under the rule of the Sangama dynasty in the 14th and 15th centuries, during which time it controlled much of South India and parts of Sri Lanka.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire was also known for its maritime trade and naval power, and its fleets played a significant role in the Indian Ocean trade network.

  • The Vijayanagara Empire declined in the 16th century, due to political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Deccan sultanates and the Portuguese.

  • The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire led to the fragmentation of South India into smaller states, which were eventually conquered by the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.

• Mali Empire:

  • The Mali Empire was a West African empire that rose to prominence in the 13th century and ruled over much of the Sahel region until the 15th century.

  • The Mali Empire was founded by Sundiata Keita, a warrior king who defeated the Sosso Empire and established a centralized state with its capital at Niani.

  • The Mali Empire was known for its wealth and prosperity, and it was one of the richest empires in the world during its heyday.

  • The Mali Empire was a center of Islamic learning and scholarship, and its rulers, including Mansa Musa, were known for their patronage of mosques, schools, and other religious institutions.

  • The Mali Empire was also known for its architecture, including the Great Mosque of Djenné, which is still considered one of the finest examples of Sahelian architecture today.

  • The Mali Empire was a major participant in the trans-Saharan trade network, and its wealth was based on the trade of gold, salt, and other goods.

  • The Mali Empire declined in the 15th century, due to political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Mossi Kingdom and the Songhai Empire.

  • The decline of the Mali Empire paved the way for the rise of the Songhai Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries, which would dominate much of West Africa until the arrival of European powers in the 19th century.

• Ghana Empire:

  • The Ghana Empire was a West African empire that flourished from the 6th to the 13th centuries, and was located in the region of modern-day Mauritania and Mali.

  • The Ghana Empire was founded by the Soninke people, and it was known for its wealth and control over the trans-Saharan trade routes.

  • The Ghana Empire was a center of trade, and its rulers taxed the goods passing through their territory, including gold, salt, and other valuable commodities.

  • The Ghana Empire was also a center of Islamic learning and scholarship, and its rulers, including the Muslim ruler Kaya Magha, were known for their patronage of mosques and religious institutions.

  • The Ghana Empire declined in the 13th century, due to political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Almoravid Empire.

  • The decline of the Ghana Empire paved the way for the rise of the Mali Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries, which would dominate much of West Africa until the arrival of European powers in the 19th century.

• Songhai Empire:

  • The Songhai Empire was a West African empire that emerged in the 15th century and ruled over much of the Sahel region until the 16th century.

  • The Songhai Empire was founded by Sunni Ali Ber, a warrior king who conquered the city of Timbuktu and expanded the empire through military conquest.

  • The Songhai Empire was known for its centralized government and well-organized military, as well as its patronage of Islamic scholarship and trade.

  • The Songhai Empire was a center of Islamic learning and scholarship, and its rulers, including Askia the Great, were known for their patronage of mosques, schools, and other religious institutions.

  • The Songhai Empire was a major participant in the trans-Saharan trade network, and its wealth was based on the trade of gold, salt, and other goods.

  • The Songhai Empire declined in the 16th century, due to internal political instability, economic decline, and invasions by external forces such as the Moroccan army.

  • The decline of the Songhai Empire marked the end of West African empires as major political entities, and paved the way for European colonization of the region in the 19th century.

• Aztec Empire:

  • The Aztec Empire was a Mesoamerican empire that emerged in the 14th century, and was located in the region of modern-day Mexico.

  • The Aztec Empire was founded by the Mexica people, who migrated to the region from the north and established their capital city of Tenochtitlan on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco.

  • The Aztec Empire was known for its sophisticated political and social organization, as well as its extensive system of tribute and taxation.

  • The Aztec Empire was a center of religion and ritual, and its rulers, including Moctezuma II, were considered to be divine or semi-divine figures who were responsible for maintaining the harmony of the universe.

  • The Aztec Empire was a major participant in the Mesoamerican trade network, and its wealth was based on the trade of luxury goods such as jade, gold, and feathers.

  • The Aztec Empire was conquered by Spanish forces led by Hernan Cortes in the 16th century, leading to the downfall of the empire and the destruction of much of its culture and heritage.

• Inca Empire:

  • The Inca Empire was a pre-Columbian empire that emerged in the Andean region of South America in the 13th century, and was located in the region of modern-day Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador.

  • The Inca Empire was founded by the Inca people, who were originally a small ethnic group in the highlands of Peru, but who gradually expanded their territory through conquest and diplomacy.

  • The Inca Empire was known for its sophisticated political and social organization, as well as its extensive system of roads, bridges, and other infrastructure.

  • The Inca Empire was a center of religion and ritual, and its rulers, including Pachacuti and Huayna Capac, were considered to be divine or semi-divine figures who were responsible for maintaining the harmony of the universe.

  • The Inca Empire was a major participant in the Andean trade network, and its wealth was based on the trade of luxury goods such as gold, silver, and textiles.

  • The Inca Empire was conquered by Spanish forces led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century, leading to the downfall of the empire and the destruction of much of its culture and heritage.

• Yuan Dynasty:

  • The Yuan Dynasty was founded by Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, in 1206.

  • Kublai Khan conquered the Song Dynasty in 1279, unifying China under Mongol rule for the first time in history.

  • The Yuan Dynasty was characterized by a strong centralized government, with power concentrated in the hands of the emperor and his officials.

  • Kublai Khan established a capital at Khanbaliq, which is modern-day Beijing.

  • The Yuan Dynasty had a multi-ethnic population, with Mongols, Han Chinese, and other groups living in China.

  • The Yuan Dynasty maintained a strict social hierarchy, with Mongols at the top and Chinese people at the bottom.

  • The Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty were initially tolerant of foreign religions, including Buddhism, Daoism, and Christianity.

  • The Yuan Dynasty promoted trade and commerce, with a system of roads and waterways connecting different regions of China.

  • The Yuan Dynasty also promoted cultural exchange between China and other parts of the world, particularly Central Asia and the Middle East.

  • However, the Yuan Dynasty was also plagued by corruption and internal divisions, which contributed to its decline in the 14th and 15th centuries.

  • In 1368, the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongol rulers and established a new dynasty in China.

• Ming Dynasty:

  • The Ming Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China that emerged in 1368 and lasted until 1644, after overthrowing the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty.

  • The first emperor of the Ming Dynasty was Zhu Yuanzhang, who established his capital in Nanjing and centralized power through a system of bureaucratic governance.

  • The early years of the Ming Dynasty saw a focus on rebuilding and stabilizing China, with reforms in agriculture, land distribution, and taxation.

  • The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402-1424) was a key figure in the early Ming Dynasty, overseeing a period of expansion and cultural flourishing, including the construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing and the voyages of Zheng He to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa.

  • The Ming Dynasty faced external threats from the Mongol confederation and the Oirat confederation, as well as internal conflicts such as the Red Turban Rebellion and the Prince of Yan rebellion.

  • The Ming Dynasty also saw a focus on cultural and intellectual pursuits, including the revival of Confucianism as the dominant philosophy and the flourishing of literature, art, and scholarship.

  • The later years of the Ming Dynasty saw a decline in power and stability, marked by economic stagnation, corruption, peasant uprisings, and external attacks from the Manchus, which ultimately led to the collapse of the dynasty in 1644 and the establishment of the Qing Dynasty.

• Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt:

  • The Mamluk Sultanate was established in 1250 AD by Mamluk slaves who had risen to power in the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt.

  • Mamluk rulers were mostly of Turkic and Circassian origin, and they adopted Sunni Islam as their official religion.

  • The Sultanate had its capital in Cairo and controlled a vast territory that included Egypt, Syria, and parts of Arabia.

  • The Mamluks were skilled warriors and were able to resist Mongol invasions, as well as repelling Crusader attacks.

  • The Sultanate was a major center of Islamic learning and culture, with renowned scholars and poets, and the construction of impressive architectural masterpieces.

  • The Mamluk Sultanate had a complex political system, with power divided between the Sultan, the military elite, and the religious establishment.

  • The economy of the Mamluk Sultanate was based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing. Cairo was a major center of international trade, and the Sultanate produced high-quality textiles and metalwork.

  • The Mamluk Sultanate declined in the 15th century due to internal power struggles, economic problems, and external threats from the Ottoman Empire.

  • The Sultanate was eventually conquered by the Ottomans in 1517, and Egypt became a province of the Ottoman Empire for the next four centuries.

• Khmer Empire:

  • The Khmer Empire, also known as the Angkor Empire, was a powerful state in Southeast Asia that ruled from the 9th to the 15th century CE, with its peak period from the 12th to the 13th century.

  • During the 12th century, the Khmer Empire experienced a golden age of prosperity and cultural achievement, under the reign of King Jayavarman VII.

  • Jayavarman VII is known for constructing many monumental buildings, including the Bayon temple and the Angkor Thom city complex, which was the capital of the Khmer Empire.

  • The Khmer Empire was a Hindu-Buddhist state, and its religion and culture were heavily influenced by India. The empire's official religion was Mahayana Buddhism, but Hinduism was also widely practiced.

  • The Khmer Empire had a sophisticated system of water management, which allowed for irrigation and the cultivation of rice, which was the staple food of the empire.

  • The empire was involved in trade with China, India, and other Southeast Asian states, and its economy was based on agriculture and the export of luxury goods such as spices and precious stones.

  • In the 13th century, the Khmer Empire faced increasing pressure from neighboring states, particularly the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, which led to a decline in its power and influence.

  • The empire eventually fell to the Siamese army in the 15th century, and the Khmer people gradually migrated to other parts of Southeast Asia, leaving behind the magnificent ruins of Angkor as a testament to their once-great civilization.

• Majapahit Empire:

  • The Majapahit Empire was a powerful Hindu-Buddhist state that ruled over much of modern-day Indonesia from the 13th to the 16th century CE, with its peak period from the 14th to the 15th century.

  • The empire was founded by the Javanese king Raden Wijaya, who defeated the rival kingdom of Singhasari in 1293 and established a new capital at Trowulan.

  • The Majapahit Empire was a maritime power, with a large navy that controlled the trade routes between China, India, and Southeast Asia.

  • The empire's economy was based on agriculture, with rice as the main crop, and trade in spices and other luxury goods, such as gold and precious stones.

  • The Majapahit Empire was known for its art and culture, including the development of the Javanese language, literature, and architecture.

  • The empire's most famous monument is the temple of Borobudur, which was built in the 9th century but was rediscovered and restored during the Majapahit period.

  • The empire was a center of Hindu-Buddhist scholarship, and produced many works of literature and religious texts, such as the Kakawin Nagarakretagama, a poem that describes the Majapahit Empire and its territories.

  • The Majapahit Empire faced challenges from internal and external pressures, including rebellions, succession crises, and attacks from neighboring states.

  • The empire eventually declined and was replaced by smaller, competing kingdoms in the 16th century, but its legacy can still be seen in the cultural traditions of modern-day Indonesia.