AP Psychology Unit 0

Flashcards for AP Psychology exam review.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Mental Processes

Thinking parts of our brain; everything happening inside our heads that we can't see from the outside.

Behavior

What we do and how we act; all the things we can see people do on the outside.

Confirmation bias

Looking for, interpreting, or remembering information in a way that confirms our pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Believing you knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if you didn’t actually predict it beforehand.

Overconfidence

Having too much faith in your own judgements or abilities, thinking you know more than you actually do.

Empirical evidence

Information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement.

Hypothesis

A specific testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study.

Falsifiable

A statement or prediction that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.

Peer review

A process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals.

Replication

The process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed.

Reliability

A measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.

Validity

The extent to which a research study tool accurately measures what it intends to measure.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

A leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychology knowledge to improve human welfare.

Research design

The overall plan or strategy that outlines how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives.

Methodology

The systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design.

Quantitative Data

Numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

Likert scales

A measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

Qualitative Data

Not about numbers but gives deeper insights into complex topics. Information collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people's experiences and behaviors.

Structured interviews

Research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order.

Survey Technique

Used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

Wording Effect

Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations and responses.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation.

Case Study

Research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

Correlational research

Scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables.

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest.

Scatterplot

A visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, one variable tends to decrease as the other variable decreases, or one variable tends to increase when the other increases. When the variables move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Variables moving in the opposite direction

Experimental Method

A research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

It's a variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results.

Operational Definitions

Specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study.

Experimental Group

The participants in the experimental group are indeed exposed to the independent variable, which is the variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Control Group

A group of participants who were not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.

Random Assignment

Research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient or physiological mechanism in the placebo itself.

Experimenter Bias

The researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results.

Single-Blind Study

Research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this information.

Double-Blind Study

Research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group.

Placebo Condition

Administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested.

Sample

Refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study.

Representative Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population.

Random Sample

Random sampling ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole.

Sample Bias

This bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population.

Descriptive Statistics

Refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a data set

Inferential Statistics

Involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Measure of Central Tendency

Statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a data set

Mean

A measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the average value of a set of data.

Median

A measure of central tendency in stats that represents the middle value in a a data set when they are arranged in numerical order

Mode

A measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Range

Represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Normal Curve

The majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions.

Regression to the Mean

Is when extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again.

Positive Skew

The majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values.

Negative Skew

The bulk of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values.

Standard Deviation

A way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group.

Percentile Rank

A statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value.

Bimodal Distribution

Type of data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance.

Effect Sizes

A large effect size indicates a substantial difference or relationship, suggesting that the independent variable has a considerable impact on the dependent variable. A small effect size indicates a minimal difference or relationship, indicating that the independent variable has a limited effect on the dependent variable.

Meta Analysis

The statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Informed Consent

The process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study's purpose, procedures, duration, risk, benefit, and potential alternatives

Informed Assent

Similar to informed consent, but specifically applies to research participants involving children and individuals who may have limited decision-making-capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities

Confidentiality

It requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality.

Deception

In psychology, deception may involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes.

Confederates

Individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study.

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation.

Article Analysis Question (AAQ)

Students will be expected to identify research elements (methodology, variables, and ethical guidelines) and interpret basic statistics presented in the article. Students will also be expected to explain whether the study can be generalized and how the article supports or refutes the psychological concept being explored in the study.

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ)

Students will be expected to propose a claim about the topic and use evidence from the sources and topics they have learned in AP Psychology, as well as reasoning about the evidence to support their claim.

Defensible Claim

An argument or viewpoint that is supported by evidence or reasoning.

Behavioral Perspective

Perspective emphasizing observation of behavior or actions; behavior is explained through conditioning and that all behavior is learned.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on thoughts and relationships; memory, thinking, problem-solving, and the underlying behavior that comes from that.

Biological Perspective

Perspective that looks solely at human behavior from biological processes; genetics, hormones, and neurotransmitters. Result from our genetic background, nervous system, and immune system.

Humanistic Perspective

Perspective that focuses on ways human beings are driven to grow change and develop their personal potential. Role of motivation in thought and behavior.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Perspective taking biological, physiological, and the sociocultural perspective combination of brains, hormones, rational thoughts, and cultural norms

Sociocultural Perspective

Perspective that focuses individuals behavior based on the influence from their culture. Looks at interactions in social and cultural groups and how does this group influence your behavior caused by social and cultural normality's such as eye contact and hand gestures

Psychodynamic Perspective

View it as psychology and human behavior is emphasized from the unconscious mind so childhood and our past relationships. Deep underlying issue in the subconscious

Evolutionary Perspective

These psychologists look at Basic principles of evolution and natural selection to explain phenomena. Serving an evolutionary purpose

Ethics

Emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of the research participants throughout the study process