Studied by 0 peopleMigration and Global shift
Pearl River Delta, China
Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs by developed world TNCs to lower cost locations
Mass internal rural-urban migration from the countryside to China’s cities, especially of people aged 15-25
UAE, Qatar ad Bahrain
Growth of the small Gulf states as an air travel, finance and tourism hub situated between Europe and Asia
International elite migration of professional workers from the developed world, plus large scale low-skill migration workers from South Asia (construction, domestic servants)
Rustbelt USA
Deindustrialisation in old industrial heartlands of the developed world, caused by factory closures
Internal migration from the northeast Rustbelt (detroit, Pittsburgh) to the southwest Sunbelt (California) as people move to find work
Bangalore, Chennai and Pune in India
Offshoring of call-centre and back-office functions by developed world TNCs to low-cost locations, utilising internet and mobil phone networks
Internal rural-urban migration, especially of graduates, from the Indian countryside to cities
International migration within EU countries
A key EU principle is freedom of movement of workers between all member states
12 EU member states in 1990, increasing to 27 by 2020
Since 1993, the EU has operated the Single Market, a free trade area for goods and services, promoting labour migration
International migration may slow down in the near term
UK left the EU in 2020
Covid pandemic created unprecedented restrictions on international travel, likely reduing migration flows (however may be a temporary impact)
Variations in migration
Globally, 3.6% of population live outside their home country
2% Sub-Saharan Africa is immigrants
10% Europe is immigrants
Reasons for variations
Some countries, such as UAE, Qatar and Singapore are global hubs for trade, transport and tourism, and have flexibe immigration and visa policies to help promote economic growth, attracting many types of migrants
Canada, Australia and USA actively encourage immigration for much of the 20th century to populate their young, vast countries
EU countries all conform to the policies of the Single Market and free movement, encouraging migration
Emerging countries (South Africa, Malaysia and Turkey) are engaging with the global economy as they grow, encouraging immigration
Developing countries are less globalised, people migrate internally to cities but lack the means and skills to consider international migration
Variations in migration
Japan
Only 2.2% of Japan’s population are immigrants, much lower than in other developed countries
Japan’s immigration policies are strict against refugees
The Japanese language and homogenous culture may make intergrating into Japanese society harder than in Europe or North America
Few thriving immigrant communities that newcomers can be apart of
Sense of being foreign remains (whearas in US immigrants become ‘American’ in terms of culture and attitudes)
27% Japans population are over 65
UN suggests Japan needs 17 million migrants by 2050 to maintain its population
Types of migrants
Most of the worlds international migrants are voluntary economic ones, with visas, work permits and other documents that allow them to work in a new country
Other types of migrants:
Refugees
Migrants forced to move across an international border to excape a threat (war, political persuction, genocide, famine, natural disasters)
Asylum seekers
Refugees who have applied for asylum i.e. the right to remain in another country, and are awaiting a desicion
Illegal immigrants
Those who have entered a foreign country without documentation but have done so voluntarily
Trafficked illegal migrants
People forced, or tricked into migrating to a country, often ending up as sex workers or in modern slavery
Migration statistics
3.6% worlds population are international migrants (2020)
Since 1990, the number of international migrants
In the global North increased by 65%
In the global South increased by 34%
Today 6/10 international migrants reside in the developed regions, showing that often migration is regionalised, people are not always trying to reach more developed countries
CASE STUDY:
Hukou
A system that controls rural to urban migration in China
Hokou forced individuals to register with local authorities to gain residency, which in turn determined where they worked
This system was first set up in the 1950s after the Chinese communist revolution when huge gaps existed between urban and rural areas, and was only gradually relaxed from the 1980s
Under the Hukou system, people were either urban or rural residents and were expected to live and die in the same locale
This restricted internal migration prevented those living in rural regions from migrating to urban areas in search of employment
Even if rural inhabitants found a job in a city, the Hukou system marked them as rural residents and denied them access to urban resident wage levels and the social welfare system to discourage internal migration
The system denied migrants equal access to education, healthcare, and other urban services in the cities and manufacturing centres
Although it has recently been relaxed following the economic boom, its mere presence continues to be a major obstacle to creating an integrated labour market in China
CASE STUDY: Internal Migration
China
Labour Surplus in Rural China
The Hukou system has been so effective at stemming migration; a surplus of workers has built up
With very few jobs besides farming available, workers look to the large cities
Extreme Poverty
About 362 million Chinese live on less than $2/day
With most of these poor living in rural areas, the need for income drives them to areas with a promise of new income
Agrarian Culture
Rural Chinese live a mainly agrarian lifestyle, farming the land and raising livestock
With access to clean water limited, lack of modern equipment and the constant threat of extreme drought, each generation becomes less entrenched in this lifestyle
They look to find work that seems more productive.
The Floating Population
As these factors now "push" rural Chinese from their homes, they're commonly referred to as members of a floating population
This means they are living in an urban area without household registration status through the Hukou system
They trade the opportunity to work in an urban area for their government-provided benefits of healthcare, education and retirement
In many cases, not having urban registration also excludes migrant workers from many urban jobs
In 2011, there were an estimated 253 million migrant workers (over 4% increase from 2010)
These workers are largely undocumented and don't officially count towards the city statistics
This is how China appears to thrive even with a growing population struggling in poverty
250 million Chinese live in urban poverty but go unaccounted as they are registered as rural
Between 1990 and 2015 the proportion of China’s population living in urban areas increased from 26% to 56%
Approxomatly 250 million rural migrants working in Chinas biggest cities
CASE STUDY: Migration in the EU
Poland
Poland joined the EU in 2004
The government estimates that since Poland joined the EU, almost 1,000,000 polish immigrants now live in the UK
Why migration in the 21st Century is increasing
Globalisation is the driving factor for migration
Internal migration towards urban areas with job oppurtunities (China, SEZs)
Climate reguees - will increase in the future
Post-colonial flow of migrants, English speaking African citizens moving to England, French speaking African citizens moving to France
Advances in transport and communications technology, raising consciousness in impoverished or conflict-ridden countries concerning conditions and oppurtunities in other countries
Globalisations encouragement of cross-border trade has encouraged movement of people e.g. Schengen agreement
The plethora of conflicts that have occurred since 2001 have fuelled an almost constant stream of internal migration (Displaced Persons) within countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria & Nigeria. The violence in these conflict zones also routinely forces citizens to seek refuge in other countries (forced migration)
Further on Syria
UN estimate: 3 million Syrian refugees in Turkey
1 million in Lebanon
660, 000 in Jordan
242,000 in Iraq
122,000 in Egypt
Why the movement of labour is unrestricted within many countries
Explain why the movement of labour is unrestricted within many countries (8)
Movement of labour is unrestricted within many nations states to ensure efficient allocation of resources. People choose to move to where jobs and higher wages are available
Internal migration shows trends, young people are more likely to move for work and/or study. There is a drift to London and the south-east
Trump’s election and the UK’s vote to leave the EU were at least partly based on attitudes and fears about international migration, and legal restrictions have been building, but once in the UK or USA, movement of economic migrants is unrestricted
There are exceptions to this, as the Hukou system in China has attempted to manage migration between rural and urban areas in China, though this is now being relaxed in an “orderly way” (2016)
Freedom of movement is regarded as a fundamental right in most countries, and stopping it is not possible in a democracy
Germany’s migrant groups
26% of Germany’s population has a migrant background, i.e. were first or second generation migrants
813,000 Syrians, 185,000 Vietnamese, 415,000 Bosnians
Germany has accepted refugees fleeingg from conlicts including the Vietnam War in the 1970s, the Bosnian conflict in the 1990s and recently the civil war in Syria
3,500,000 Russians
Many Russians migrated to Germany immediately after the USSR collapsed in 1991 at the end of the Cold War
This was partly driven by poverty as industry and the economy crumbled
2,800,000 Turks
From the 1950s to the 1970s large numbers of Turkish people migrated to Germany as part of the Gastarbeiter (guest worker) programme to slove labour shortages in Germany
195,000 Dutch
EU freedom of movement means that the Dutch, and any othe EU nationals, can frely live and work in Germany, thus encouraging cross-border migration
International migration as economically beneficial
Migrands fill labour shortages and are often more skilled and better educated than the population as a whole
Immigrants contribute more to taxes than they revieve in social security benifits
Immigration increases working-age population
Migrants may be more entrepreneurial and risk-taking
EU freedom of movement
In the 2016 UK ‘Brexit’ referendum, those voting to leave the EU argued that the EU freedom of movement meant a loss of UK sovereignty as the UK could not control the numbers of EU immigrants moving to the UK
Freedom of movement has also been accused of challenging national identity
Host populations feeling ‘swamped’ by immigrants with different cultural traditions from their own
The feeling that immigrants get ‘something for nothing’ i.e. healthcare without having paid National Insurance
Physical changes taking place, especially in cities, where people feel the identity of a place ‘feels foreign’ because of new immigrant businesses, places of worship and signs in foreign languages
Feelings of loss of sovereignty and erosion od national identity are difficult to quantify and measure, however notional votes across the developed since 2010 has suggested unease with large-scale immigration and other forces such as globalisation
52% people voted in favour of UK leaving EU during the 2016 referendum
Donald Trump was the US presidential election in 2016 in which immegration was a key issue
National Rally, an anti-immigration party gained 23% of the vote in the 2019 EU French election, and 34% during the presidential election in 2017
Assimilation
A potential cost of immigration relates to the degree to which immigrants assimilate into the host culture. Over time the process of cultural assimilation means that immigrants
Adopt the language of the host
Adopt some of the traditions, belifs and lifestyles of the host
Assimilation in the UK
89% of people thought their community was cohesive, agreeing that thier local area was a place where people from different backgrounds get on well together (risen from 80% in 2003)
89% population felt they belonged ‘veryery or fairly strongly to Britain’
90% of foreign national living in the UK already spoke English ‘very well’
This may suggest assimilation in the UK has been relatively successful
Assimilation in the UAE
UAE citizens make up only 11% of the total population
Emiratis tend to work in government jobs, which are seperate from the global TNC jobs of Europeans and North Americans, and the low-paid construction jobs of South Asian people
Ethnically, white Europeans/North Americans, Arabs, and South Asian people are very different and have very different religions (Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist)
Differneces in language, dress and cultural formality/informality, and different views of women in society
This may suggest assimilation in the AUE has been less successful
Immigration impacts on host countries
Social, Cultural, Economic, Demographic
Benifits
Providing workers for key social services e.g. health and care sectors
New foods, fashions and arts
Greater cultural diversity makes a country more interesting and global
Fills labour shortages and skills gaps
Increases tax paid to government
Boosts average skill level
Offsets ageing population
Boosts fertility rates
Costs
Pressure on schools, healthcare systems and other social services
Segregated areas of low-income migrants create division
Some cultural traits are incompatible with the host culture e.g. position of women in society
Downward pressure on wages
Risks displacing some of the host population workers
Leads to overpopulation and overcrowding
Pressure on housing and house prices rising
Nation
State
Sovereignty
Nation
A people united by factors such as a language, a common ethnic and cultural background, and customs, which bring a sense of national identity
State
A territory that no other country has power or sovereignty of
As of 2016, the UN recognised 196 states
Sovereignty
The legal right to govern a physical territory, has four aspects:
A governement, organised within a territory, that has authority over that territory
The government controls movement of poeple and goods across the territorys borders
The government and territory are recognised by other governments
Other organisations, outside the territory, do not have higher authority
Nations without states: Kurds
Kurdish people are spread across five countries in the Middle East
Kurts have a strong cultural identity as a nation and a very long cultural history, but no state
Turkey has long fought a war against the Kurdish indipendence movement (PKK) since 1984
Monocultural: Iceland and Japan
Multicultural: Singapore
Iceland (homogenous)
Population of foreign origin is 8.9%
Physically very isolated
Difficult language to learn
Fewer economic opportunities
Harsh climate not suited to most immigrants
Laws to protect national heritage including naming children from an approved list, preservation of language (largely unchanged throughout history) and fixed traditions of surnames (son or dottir)
Japan
Population of foreign origin is 2%
Singapore
77% Chinese, 14% Malaysian, 8% Indian, 1% other
Singapore was set up as a colonial trading post in the early 19th century, and has had large growth due to immigration, mainly from China, India and Malaysia
It is divided into ethnic areas (European town, Chinatown, Chulia Kampon for Indian Hindus and Sikhs, Kampong Glam for Muslim Malays and Arabs)
It had brief periods of Malaysian and Japanese rule, before becoming independent in 1965
Have tried to create a sense of identity based on Asian values, but it is hard to define what ‘Asian values’ are
Borders
Borders separate nations and are either natural, have emerged historically over time, or are the result of colonial history or political intervention:
Natural borders
These consist of physical features that once created natural obstacles, such as rivers (e.g. the Niagara River between Canada and the USA), lakes (e.g. the border created by Lake Tanganyika between the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Tanzania and Burundi), or mountains (e.g. the Pyrenees between France and Spain)
Colonial history and political intervention
For example, 14 countries met at a conference in Berlin in 1884-5 to discuss and divide up the continent of Africa
At that time 80% of the continent was still under indigenous control, but by the end of the conference it had been divided up into 50 separate countries along geometric boundaries (formed by arcs or straight lines, e.g. latitude and longitude) - as well as being turned into colonies by the major European powers
The new country borders were superimposed onto the existing indigenous regions of Africa, with no account taken of tribal or linguistic boundaries. Neither the conference, nor any future negotiations, gave African peoples any say over partitioning their homelands and turning them into European
France
Physical factors shaping borders: Pyrenees, Alps, Mediterranean, Atlantic, Rhein river
Human factors shaping borders: WW1, WW2, (Alsace-Lorraine disputes)
Africa
Lots of geometric, straight line borders due to colonisation (cause for conflict)
Murdock Ethnic map shows the ethinc groups that make up Africa, and the borders created by European colonisers disregarding these groups i.e. straight line between Egypt and Sudan
Disputed borders
Ukraine and Russia over Crimea
Large ethnic Russian population, historic Russian navy fleets (Russian black sea fleet), plus access to port
China and Japan over Taiwan, as well as own independence
China wants to reinforce its dominance as a global superpower and consolidate its power, by claiming territory over Taiwan
Being able to set up bases further into the Pacific Ocean would extend China's military reach and intimidate nations in the region, controlling Taiwan would disrupt the US geographical security concept known as the "island chain strategy", which is essentially a barrier of islands between the Chinese mainland and the Western Pacific ocean
If China controlled Taiwan, it could then control Asia's major shipping routes
CASE STUDY: Conflict due to borders
Tutsi and Hutus, Rwanda
Before the Berlin conference, Rwanda was a unified region, Tutsi were in control of the area, but any problems were resolved through a council that included both Tutsi and Hutu members
When Belgium took control over Rwanda following Germany defeat after WW1 they favoured the Tutsi minority, giving them privaleges over the Hutu majority
They introduced ethnic identity cards that encouraged differentiation between the tribes
After Belgian troops withdrew from Central Africa, Hutus and Tutsis began fighting
In 1962, two new countries were formed
Rwanda was led by Hutus, while Burundi was led by Tutsis
Fighting continued until it came to a head in 1994 with a devastating civil war in Rwanda that left over 800,000 Rwandans dead
The Tutsis then took control, forcing millions of Hutus to flee into nearby Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania
Example of inefficiency of the UN
Nation states across Europe during 19th and 20th Century
1648 Peace of Westphalia made legal status of the nation state soveriegn over other powers
1789 French Revolution led to the modern French state, French government replaced the monarchy, leading to growth of nationalist ideas across Europe
1871 unification of many small indipendent states resulted in the formation of modern Germany and Italy
1919 Treaty of Versailles lead to the breakup of Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, creating many new nation states
Nationalism
Advantages
Creates a sense of unity, even in diversity
Patriotism
Consciousness of history and culture
Creates voice of the people against the autocratic monarchs
Creates a unifying force which overshadowed tribal identities and forged a new much more inclusive and rational identity
Has allowed a mega system to function, creating big governments that can look after health and education of the people
Disadvantages
Can create intolerance for other nations / groups
It often leads to jingoism (extreme patriotism, especially in the form of aggressive or warlike foreign policy)
Distrust of other nations led to WW1 and WW2
Narrow definition of nationalism isolates some sections of society and breeds hatred. Pakistan defines nationalism based on Islam, thereby eliminating others.
Politicians often manipulate feelings of people based on nationalism and justify even detrimental policies.
Rise and fall of Colonisalism
Between 1500 and 1900, many European powers built global empires
Newly discovered South America was invaded and colonised by the Spanish whilst UK, France and Belgium colonised parts of Asia and Africa
By 1880 Britain controlled a third of the world's land surface and over a quarter of the world's population
British culture spread across South Asia through local governance and education, controlled by the UK, as a result, many previously colonised states now have the Union Jack within their own flag
End of empires following WW2 happened because:
High cost of war had left UK almost bankrupt
There was growing resistance to foreign rule and the rise of independence political groups
Rapid population growth was a major problem for the UK government
European countries were becoming less dependant on raw materials from their colonies
Some independent states (Vietnam, Sudan, Rwanda, DRC etc) were left unable to successfully govern themselves, which has led to many conflicts and wars following the end of the Imperial Era
The conflict has been costly to their development, natural environment and in terms of human fatalities
CASE STUDY: Post-colonial conflict
Vietnam
Vietnam was the colony of French Indochina
It descended into conflict between the Northern, communist Viet Minh, and the Southern, nationalist State of Vietnam government in Saigon
China and USSR backed the communists
France, UK and USA backed Saigon
The conflict quickly became a Cold War proxy war, turning what might have been a relatively small civil war into a brutal geopolitical power struggle
Claimed the lives of 1-3 million people
Resulted in North Vietnamese victory
Economic development was halted by war, leading to widespread poverty and reliance on a few sectors that managed to develope i.e post-war tourism in Vietnam
Environmental costs were high, a defoliant called Agent Orange withas used to cler vast areas of the jungle of leaves so that communist forces could be spotted by US troops, leading to a toxic legacy of pollution
Proxy War
Fought by two sides who are each supported by more powerful, opposing nation states or superpowers
The more powerful nation states do not directly engage each other in the conflict
Migration and colonial ties
The years after WW2 saw a massive increase in labour migration due to big labour shortages in Western Europes reviving economies as a result of the US Marshall plan
1948 the British Nationality Act gave all Commonwealth citizens the right to British citizenship
As levels of international migration increased, the UKs population became a more heterogeneous mix of people
Growth of new states
Washington Consensus
A belief that economic efficiency can only be achieved if regulations are removed
For tax havens
Most governments and IGOs accept the growth of tax havens because they seek investment from TNCs to generate employment and wealth, where they have
freedom to set their own tax rates
Against tax havens
Reduces government incomes harming provision of services such as health and education
It deprives poor countries from being able to provide vital services
Cayman Islands
Population of just 56,000, but 100 different nationalities
Among worlds most successful financial centres
0% personal income tax rate
Financial services generate 55% of the islands GDP and employs 36% population
CASE STUDY: Reducing inequalities
Bolivia
Under Evo Morales
Reuced influence of USA
Distanced Bolivia from World Bank and IMF
Increased taxes on oil company profits from 18% to 82%
Spent additional tax-take on education and health
Worked successfully to increase literacy
Provided universal child benifit and beifits to low-income older people
Guaranteed food prices
Protected rights of indigenous Bolivians
Aligned Bolivia with other left-wing governments
The United Nations
In 1944, the UN’s aims, structure and roles were agreed by the USA, UK, USSR and China (forming the only permanent members of the security council along with France)
Aims:
Maintaining international peace and security
Promoting sustainable development
Protecting human rights
Upholding international law
Delivering humanitarian aid
However the UN is not unbiased since national disputes often influence UN policy making
The Syrian conflict was an example of such biassed judgments; Russia and China wanted to support the Assad regime whereas the USA, UK and France supported the rebels
All decisions regarding the Syrian conflict were biassed from the states’ opinions, which could arguably have caused the conflict to escalate
UN Security Council
Meets to respond to threats to national and international security
The UN can introduce economic sanctions against countries or can carry out direct military intervention:
Arms embargoes - banning weapons and military supplies
Trade embargoes - banning certain imports and exports to and from certain countries
Restrictions on loans
Freezing assets
Travel restrictions - for high profile people like politicians and business people
UN has no hard-power methods to police countries
Countries can ignore advice from the UN
For example, Russia ignores the UN’s advice in relation to its ongoing conflict with Ukraine, more recently Israel has also ignored the UN
CASE STUDY: The UN
Srebrenica Massacre
Direct military involvement
In 1993 the UN was provoked into action following allegations of ethnic cleansing by Bosnian Serb forces against Bosnian Muslims
To protect Bosnian Muslims, the UN designated a safe zone in Srebrenica, protected by a small force of Dutch UN peacekeepers
However, the town was soon put under siege by Bosnian Serb forces
Supplies of food ran low, and many Muslims died of starvation
In 1995, Bosnian Serb forces captured Srebrenica; massacring 8000 Muslim men and boys, and deporting 23 000 women and children, many of whom suffered rape
Dutch peacekeepers were outnumbered; several were taken hostage by Bosnian Serbs and threatened with execution if the Dutch interfered
UN Secretary General Kofi Annan described the massacre as a tragedy that would haunt the UN forever
CASE STUDY: The UN
Crimea
In 2014 Russian-backed forces seized control of the Crimea region, attempting to regain political influence over the country
In protest, the EU, USA, Australia, Canada and Norway all imposed sanctions on 23 leading Russian politicians - their overseas financial assets were frozen, and they were also prevented from travelling to those five areas
The USA also led moves towards sectoral sanctions, le. targeting key areas of the Russian economy (energy, banking, finance, defence and technology) for further sanctions
The impacts were substantial - up to a point
$70-90 billion left Russia as wealthy Russian investors sought secure overseas banks
Russia's currency was also devalued and its international credit rating reduced
But, as often happens with economic sanctions, Russia retaliated, banning imported food from the EU and USA:
Russia became less dependent on oil and gas exports, and instead increased the diversification of its economy
Russian farmers gained larger home markets, because of the restrictions on imported food
the EU kept importing Russian energy supplies, despite the sanctions
Food exports from the EU and USA were hit; Dutch tomato and cucumber sales to Russia fell by 80%, and Czech and Greek fruit sales to Russia fell by 70% and 50% respectively
CASE STUDY: The UN
Iran
Economic sanctions
A suspicion that Iran was attempting the build nuclear weapons led to the imposition of economic sanctions and financial restrictions by the UN
At the time Iran was the 4th largest oil-exporting country and influenced global oil prices through OPEC
Iran's annual GDP fell by 5%
Successes of the UN
Material assistance
The United Nations provides a lifeline to millions of people across the world
The World Food Program provides food and cash assistance to over 80 million people
The United Nations provides aid to nearly 69 million displaced people who fled their home due to persecution, conflict, or human rights violations
UN agencies supply 45% of the world's children with vaccines, saving an estimated 2 to 3 million lives each year from preventable diseases
Human rights
The United Nations established the first comprehensive framework for human rights law
The organisation defined human rights through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the subsequent International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Together, these documents defined the rights to equality, free movement, education, religion, and asylum, along with many others
The UN also established mechanisms to promote and protect the rights it outlines
Decolonization
When the UN was founded in 1945, 750 million people lived in territories controlled by a colonial power
Less than 2 million people live under colonial rule today
A key feature of the human rights framework of the United Nations involves every nation's right to sovereignty and self-determination
The UN played a major role in decolonization efforts following WWIl and continues to provide a forum to discuss international objectives like decolonization
IGOs
The World Bank and IMF
The World Bank and IMF both have headquarters in Washington, USA
They were established to try and stabilise global finance markets after the Great Depression and WWII
Many Western countries agreed on the policies of the World Bank and IMF, including a fixed exchange rate for any loan or financial assistance, based on the US dollar and gold
The USA has a disproportionate influence at Bretton Woods (a conference in 1944) over how the world economic system was to be designed
This was because only the USA was left with a large amount of financial resources after the wars, whilst European states were left almost bankrupt
As these institutions were created and are regulated by Western countries, they can often favour developed countries over developing countries in terms of the help they offer
World Bank
189 member countries
Main goal is to give financial assistance to countries
Focuses on development and reducing poverty
Provided funding and resources in projects in some of the poorest countries in the world
Funded by issuing bonds
IMF
189 member countries
The IMF’s job is to oversee a system of fixed exchange rates, which tied the value of a country’s currency to the US dollar, which was pegged to gold
Main purpose of making sure exchange rates stay stable to encourage global trade
Provides short-term loans to countries struggling with paying their debts
Keeps tabs on the global economy and puts economic policies in place in member countries
Structural adjustment programs (SAPS)
A set of economic reforms that a country must adhere to in order to secure a loan from the IMF / World Bank. Structural adjustments are often a set of economic policies, including reducing government spending, opening to free trade, and so on
SAPS can include:
Open up domestic markets to allow private investment
Reduce the role of government by privatisation industries and services
Remove restrictions on capital so there are no limits on international investments
Reduce government spending by cutting infrastructure and welfare spending
Devalue currency to make exports cheaper
For
Opens up domestic markets, allowing private companies to develop resources for export
Creates economic stability that will be beneficial long-term
Helps cut debt and escape debt trap
Devaluing currency makes exports more attractive, helps develop exports
Against
Many countries sacrificed their economic sovereignty as they liberalised their economies - becoming ‘transnationalised’ as TNCs took over privatised services
Increases dependency on trade
Devalued currency makes it difficult to buy essential supplies - medicine etc.
Privatising services raised price drastically, link to Bolivia water privatisation
Moral case against governments cutting spending
Heavily Indebted Poor Count (HIPC)
Designed by the World Bank and IMF to ensure that the poorest countries in the world are not overwhelmed by unmanageable or unsustainable debt burdens
It reduces the debt of countries meeting strict criteria
For
Writes off a portion of debt to heavily indebted countries, allowing these countries to get out of a cycle of debt and
Focus on developing infrastructure such as healthcare and education
Against
Unfair to / inconsiderate to countries not within qualifications
Does it encourage poor financial decisions?
Role of IGOs in managing global environmental problems
Montreal protocal
Address the atmospheric deterioation caused by ODSs
Stipulated that both the production and consumption of ODSs must be phased out by 2000
By 2009 it was the first global treaty to reach 197 signatures and achieve global ratification
By 2010 virtually all countries had phased out ODSs
UNCLOS
An agreement defining the rights and responsibilities of Nations in using the worlds oceans
Created EEZs, extending territorial water zones to 200 miles from the coast
Water convention
Aims to protect the quantity, quality, and sustainable use of transboundary water resources by promoting cooperation between countries
Problems difficult for IGOs to manage
Overfishing threatens Pacific bluefin tuna
Large areas to protect and monitor, would require agreement of many countries. Fishing is important for food supply and as economic activity
Ivory poaching has led to near extinction of rhino and elephants across Africa
Disagreements between African countries about the sale of ivory confiscated from poachers
Value of ivory and involvement of organised criminal gangs
Tourism and climate change is an increasing threat to Antarctica
More visitors increases risk of oil spills. Ocean acidification and warming of ocean will be difficult to stop
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