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Scientific Method

Question → Research → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analyze → Report

Theory

More evidence than a hypothesis, widely accepted in the scientific community

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon based on limited evidence, serving as a starting point for further investigation

Requirements of life

Cells, reproduction, use energy, hereditary info, evolve

Cell theory

The scientific theory that all living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells. 1 of the 3 unifying ideas of science.

Chromosome theory

Hereditary info is stored in cells in units called genes on chromosomes.

Evolution theory

Species are related by common ancestory, characteristics of species are modified from generation to generation.

The A nucleotide bonds with

T

The C nucleotide bonds with

G

RNA world hypothesis

Proposes a stage of evolution where RNA contained genetic info & catalyzed it’s own replication.

Main componets of nucleotides

Sugar, Phosphate, Nitrogenous base

DNA structure

Sugar phosphate backbone, Anti parallel double helix.

What axis does the dependent variable go on

Y

What axis does the independent variable go on

X

Continuous data

Measured (Temp, decimals & fractions)

Discrete

Countable (# of cats in a room, 1, 2 ,3)

Type of graph for continous data

Line/Scatter

Type of graph for %

Pie chart (uncommon)

Type of graph for catagorical

Bar graph/Box & whisker

Line Graph

Shows general trend

Scatter Plot

Shows variation in data points (outliers can be seen)

Bar Graph

Shows mean

Whisker Graph

Shows range (and variation)

The Central Dogma

DNA → RNA → Protein

Transcription

The process of DNA being transcripted into RNA

Translation

Process of RNA being translated into an amino acid sequence, which produces phenotype

How to find the % comp of complementary DNA strand

Take the nucleotide you’re looking for (Ex. A), and add the # of the nucleotides on the same strand that would bond with the one you’re looking for on the complementary strand. (Temp A + Temp T / total nucleotides)

Set of chromosomes

# of unique chromosomes in an organism (represented by n)

Ploidy

Sets of chromosomes in an organism (represented by #)

Set of chromosomes in humans

23

Ploidy of humans

2

Diploid

The organism’s ploidy is 2

Silent Mutation

Doesn't affect amino acid sequence, usually neutral in nature

Missense Mutation

Changes one amino acid, could be deletorious/neutral/beneficial

Nonsense Mutation

Early stop codon, almost always deletorious

Frameshift Mutation

Add or delete base pairs which shifts the position, Usually deletorious and maybe neutral

Experimental Study

Reserachers manipulate conditions to test results, usually has a control group.

Observational Study

Researchers don’t manipulate conditions

Why is DNA an effective info storage unit

Its structure is highly resiliant & stable, it’s nonreactive and simple.

Base pairs bond through

Hydrogen bonding (it’s weaker and allows for easier seperation in replication)

The sugar phosphate backbone is held together through

Covalent or phosphodiester bonds (Strong and allows the backbone to stay fixed together)

Semi-conservative DNA replication

In replication, the DNA is broken apart at the hydrogen bonds between base pairs, creating two template strands.

DNA strands are both synthesized from

5’ to 3’

Leading strand

The strand that runs 5’ → 3’, this strand is done in one fell swoop during transcription

Lagging strand

The strand that runs 3’ to 5’, since it has to be synthesized in reverse order it lags behind

Basic (primary) structure of protein

A sequence of amino acids, the type of amino acids control how the protein folds and how it functions