U.S. Constitution, Federalism, and Early Political History

James Madison

Known as the "Father of the Constitution," he played a key role in drafting and promoting the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Co-authored The Federalist Papers and later became the fourth president of the United States, shaping early national policy.

Alexander Hamilton

First Secretary of the Treasury, he established the national bank, promoted a strong central government, and led the Federalist Party. Advocated for commercial and industrial development and co-authored many of The Federalist Papers to support the Constitution.

Federalists

Political group supporting a strong national government, ratification of the Constitution, and policies encouraging commerce and industry. Favored a loose interpretation of the Constitution. Leaders included Hamilton, Madison (initially), and John Jay.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution without a Bill of Rights, favoring strong state governments and fearing central government overreach. Prominent leaders included Patrick Henry and George Mason. Their push led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

The Federalist Papers

A series of essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay arguing for ratification of the Constitution. Explained the principles of federalism, checks and balances, and the need for a strong central government. Influential in shaping public opinion.

Constitutional Convention

1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution, resolving conflicts between large and small states, and creating a stronger federal government while addressing concerns of representation.

Federalism

System dividing power between national and state governments, allowing both levels to govern simultaneously while limiting abuses of power and maintaining unity.

Checks and Balances

System where legislative, executive, and judicial branches have powers to monitor and limit each other, ensuring no single branch becomes dominant.

Virginia Plan

Proposed strong national government with three branches and bicameral legislature, representation based on population, favoring larger states in the Constitutional Convention debates.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed equal representation for all states in a unicameral legislature, protecting the interests of smaller states during the Constitutional Convention.

Great Compromise

Agreement merging the Virginia and New Jersey plans: bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives (population-based) and Senate (equal representation). Balanced large and small state interests.

Senate

Upper house of Congress with two senators per state, representing state equality regardless of population, part of the system of checks and balances.

House of Representatives

Lower house of Congress with representation based on population, giving larger states greater influence on federal legislation.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement counting each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes, balancing northern and southern state interests.

Commerce Compromise

Allowed Congress to regulate interstate and international trade while prohibiting taxes on exports, addressing economic concerns between the North and South.

Separation of Powers

Constitutional principle dividing government responsibilities into legislative, executive, and judicial branches, preventing concentration of power and protecting liberty.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments guaranteeing individual liberties and restricting federal power. Introduced to satisfy Anti-Federalists and secure ratification of the Constitution.

National Bank

Proposed by Hamilton to stabilize finances, manage federal funds, and issue a national currency. Opposed by Jefferson and Madison as unconstitutional under a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

Federalist Party

Political party favoring strong central government, commerce, industry, and close ties with Britain. Supported by Hamilton and Adams in the 1790s.

Democratic-Republican Party

Led by Jefferson and Madison, advocating states' rights, limited federal government, and agricultural economy. Opposed Federalist policies and favored closer ties with France.

John Adams

Second U.S. president and Federalist. Managed foreign tensions with France (XYZ Affair) and passed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts. Vice president under Washington.

Washington's Farewell Address

1796 address warning against political factions, permanent foreign alliances, and regional divisions, promoting national unity and neutrality in foreign conflicts.

Alien and Sedition Acts

1798 laws making immigration harder, extending naturalization, and criminalizing criticism of the government, provoking resistance and debate over civil liberties.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Statements by Jefferson and Madison asserting that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws, specifically responding to the Alien and Sedition Acts.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

1794 battle in Ohio between U.S. forces and Native Americans resisting westward expansion, leading to U.S. victory and opening the Northwest Territory for settlement.

Treaty of Greenville

1795 treaty after the Battle of Fallen Timbers in which Native Americans ceded large parts of Ohio and the Northwest Territory to the United States.

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 uprising by Pennsylvania farmers against a federal tax on whiskey. Suppressed by Washington, demonstrating federal authority and the power to enforce laws.

French Revolution

1789 European uprising that divided American opinion, with debates over support for revolutionary France or neutrality in European conflicts.

Proclamation of Neutrality

1793 declaration by Washington stating the U.S. would remain neutral in the war between France and Britain, avoiding entanglement in foreign conflicts.

Citizen Genêt

French diplomat who tried to recruit Americans to support France's revolution, violating U.S. neutrality and causing political controversy.

Jay Treaty

1794 agreement with Britain resolving issues from the Revolutionary War, improving trade, and avoiding war, but criticized for favoring Britain.

Pinckney Treaty

1795 treaty with Spain granting U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River, use of New Orleans port, and resolving territorial disputes.

Right of Deposit

Granted by the Pinckney Treaty, allowing Americans to transfer goods at New Orleans without paying customs duties, facilitating western trade.

XYZ Affair

1797 diplomatic scandal where French agents demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats, leading to an undeclared naval war and increased anti-French sentiment.

Northwest Ordinance

1787 law establishing governance and admission of new states in the Northwest Territory, prohibiting slavery and promoting orderly expansion.

Indian Intercourse Act

1790 law regulating trade and interactions with Native Americans, aiming to maintain peace and protect federal interests in western territories.