MODULE 6-8

Who am I?

the answer to this question introduces the OD practitioner to the organization, particularly to those members who do not know the consultant and yet will be asked to provide diagnostic data.

Why am I here?, and what am I doing?

These answers are aimed at defining the goals of the diagnosis and data-gathering activities. The consultant needs to present the objectives of the action research process and to describe how the diagnostic activities fit into the overall developmental strategy.

Who do I work for?

This answer clarifies who has hired the OD practitioner, whether it be a manager, a group of managers, or a group of employees and managers.

What do I want from you, and why?

Here, the OD practitioner needs to specify how much time and effort people will need to give to provide valid data and subsequently to work with these data in solving problems.

How will I protect your confidentiality?

This answer addresses member concerns about who will see their responses and in what form. This is especially critical when employees are asked to provide information about their attitudes or perceptions.

Who will have access to the data? Respondents typically want to know whether they will have access to their data and who else in the organization will have similar access. The OD practitioner needs to clarify access issues and, in most cases, should agree to provide respondents with their own results. Indeed, the collaborative nature of diagnosis means that organization members will work with their own data to discover causes of problems and to devise relevant interventions.

What is in it for you? This answer is aimed at providing organization members with a clear delineation of the benefits they can expect from the diagnosis. This usually entails describing the feedback process and how they can use the data to improve the organization.

Can I be trusted?

The diagnostic relationship ultimately rests on the trust established between the OD practitioner and those providing the data. An open and honest exchange of information depends on such trust, and the practitioner should provide ample time and face-to-face contact during the contracting process to build this trust.

Survey n questionnaire strength

Member beliefs and attitudes can be quantified easily Can gather large amount of data from many people Inexpensive on a per-person basis

Survey n questionnaire weakness

Relatively impersonal Mechanistic and rigid— assumes all the right questions are asked Easy to “over interpret” the data Response bias

Interview strength

Very flexible can adapt to interviewee and data collection subject Data is “rich” Interview process builds rapport and empathy

Interview weakness

Relatively expensive Interviewer responses can be biased Difficult to code and interpret Self-report bias

Observations strength

Collects data on actual behavior, rather than reports of behavior Real time, not retrospective Adaptive and objective

Observations weakness

Difficult to code and interpret Sampling may be inconsistent Observer bias and reliability can be questioned Can be expensive

Unobtrusive measures strength

No response bias High face validity Easily quantified

Unobtrusive measures weakness

Privacy, access, and retrieval difficulties Validity concerns Difficult to code and interpret

Questionnaires

One of the most efficient ways to collect data is through . Because they typically contain fixed-response queries about various features of an organization, these measures can be administered to large numbers of people simultaneously. Also, they can be analyzed quickly, especially with the use of computers, thus permitting quantitative comparison and evaluation.

Interviews

A second important measurement technique is the _. They are probably the most widely used technique for collecting data in OD. They permit the interviewer to ask the respondent direct questions. Further probing and clarification is, therefore, possible as the interview proceeds.

Structured Interviews

a type of interview typically derive from a conceptual model of organization functioning; the model guides the types of questions that are asked. For example, a based on the organization-level design components identified in Chapter 5 would ask managers specific questions about strategy, technology, organization structure, management processes, human resources systems, and organization culture.

Unstructured Interviews

A type of interview in which are more general and include the following broad questions about organizational functioning such “What are the major goals or objectives of the organization or department?” “How does the organization currently perform with respect to these purposes? “

Observations

One of the more direct ways of collecting data is simply to observe organizational behaviors in their functional settings. The OD practitioner may do this by walking casually through a work area and looking around or by simply counting the occurrences of specific kinds of behaviors (e.g., the number of times a phone call is answered after three rings in a service department).

Unobtrusive measures

are not collected directly from respondents but from secondary sources, such as company records and archives. These data are generally available in organizations and include records of absenteeism or tardiness; grievances; quantity and quality of production or service; financial performance; meeting minutes; and correspondence with key customers, suppliers, or governmental agencies.

Sampling

Application of the different data collection techniques invariably raises the following questions: “How many people should be interviewed and who should they be?” “What events should be observed and how many?” “How many records should be inspected and which ones?”

Random sample

Probably the most common approach to sampling diagnostic data in OD is a simple _, in which each member, behavior, or record has an equal chance of being selected.

Qualitative techniques

a type of data analysis technique in which are generally easier to use because they do not rely on numerical data. That fact also makes them more open to subjective biases but also easier to understand and interpret.

Content analysis

a method for summarizing diagnostic data in which it is a popular technique for assessing qualitative data, especially interview data, is _, which attempts to summarize comments into meaningful categories. When done well, a content analysis can reduce hundreds of interview comments into a few themes that effectively summarize the issues or attitudes of a group of respondents.

Force-field Analysis

a method for summarizing diagnostic data where it derives from Kurt Lewin’s three-step model of change described in Chapter 2. Called force-field analysis, this method organizes information pertaining to organizational change into two major categories: forces for change and forces for maintaining the status quo or resisting change. 13 Using data collected through interviews, observations, or unobtrusive measures

Quantitative techniques

a type of data analysis technique in which it can provide more accurate readings of the organizational problem. These measures are routinely produced by most statistical computer software packages. Therefore, mathematical calculations are not discussed here.

Means. Standard deviations, and frequency distributions

a quantitative technique in summarying data in which one of the most economical and straightforward ways to summarize quantitative data is to compute a _ for each item or variable measured. These represent the respondents’ average score and the spread or variability of the responses, respectively.

Correlation coefficients

a quantitative technique which is a addition to describing data, quantitative techniques also permit OD practitioners to make inferences about the relationships between variables. _ are measures of the strength of a relationship between two variables.

Scattergram

a quantitative technique which is a diagram that visually displays the relationship between two variables. It is constructed by locating each case (person or event) at the intersection of its value for each of the two variables being compared.

Difference test

It can be used to compare a sample group against some standard or norm to determine whether the group is above or below that standard. It also can be used to determine whether two samples are significantly different from each other.

Feeding Back Data

Perhaps the most important step in the diagnostic process is _ diagnostic information to the client organization. Although the data may have been collected with the client’s help, the OD practitioner often organizes and presents them to the client.

Ownership of Data

A key objective of the feedback process is to be sure that the client has the _

Content of Feedback

In the course of diagnosing the organization, a large amount of data is collected—often, more information than the client needs or can interpret in a realistic period of time. If too many data are fed back, the client may decide that changing is impossible. Therefore, OD practitioners need to summarize the data in ways that enable clients to understand the information and draw action implications from it.

Relevant

Organization members are likely to use feedback data for problem solving when they find the information meaningful.

Understandable

Data must be presented to organization members in a form that is readily interpreted. Statistical data, for example, can be made understandable through the use of graphs and charts.

Descriptive

Feedback data need to be linked to real organizational behaviors if they are to arouse and direct energy. The use of examples and detailed illustrations can help employees gain a better feel for the data.

Verifiable

Feedback data should be valid and accurate if they are to guide action. Thus, the information should allow organization members to verify whether the findings really describe the organization.

Limited

Because people can easily become overloaded with too much information, feedback data should be limited to what employees can realistically process at one time.

Significant

Feedback should be limited to those problems that organization members can do something about because it will energize them and help direct their efforts toward realistic changes.

Comparative

Feedback data can be ambiguous without some benchmark as a reference. Whenever possible, data from comparative groups should be provided to give organization members a better idea of how their group fits into a broader context.

Unfinalized

Feedback is primarily a stimulus for action and thus should spur further diagnosis and problem solving. Members should be encouraged, for example, to use the data as a starting point for more in-depth discussion of organizational issues.

Human process interventions

These processes include communication, problem solving, group decision making, and leadership. This type of intervention is deeply rooted in OD’s history and represents the earliest change programs characterizing the field.

Process consultation

a type of change program where This intervention focuses on interpersonal relations and social dynamics occurring in work groups. Typically, a process consultant helps group members diagnose group functioning and devise appropriate solutions to process problems, such as dysfunctional conflict, poor communication, and ineffective norms.

Third party intervention

This change method is a form of process consultation aimed at dysfunctional interpersonal relations in organizations. Interpersonal conflict may derive from substantive issues, such as disputes over work methods, or from interpersonal issues, such as miscommunication.

Team building

This intervention helps work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks. Like process consultation, team building helps members diagnose group processes and devise solutions to problems. It goes beyond group processes, however, to include examination of the group’s task, member roles, and strategies for performing tasks.

Organization Confrontation meeting

This change method mobilizes organization members to identify problems, set action targets, and begin working on problems. It is usually applied when organizations are experiencing stress and when management needs to organize resources for immediate problem solving.

Intergroup relation

These interventions are designed to improve interactions among different groups or departments in organizations. The microcosm group intervention involves a small group of people whose backgrounds closely match the organizational problems being addressed.

Large group Interventions

These interventions involve getting a broad variety of stakeholders into a large meeting to clarify important values, to develop new ways of working, to articulate a new vision for the organization, or to solve pressing organizational problems.

Structural Design

This include moving from more traditional ways of dividing the organization’s overall work (such as functional, self contained unit, and matrix structures) to more integrative and flexible forms (such as process-based, customer centric, and network-based structures)

Diagnostic guidelines

Downsizing

This intervention reduces costs and bureaucracy by decreasing the size of the organization through personnel layoffs, organization redesign, and outsourcing.

Reengineering

This intervention radically redesigns the organization’s core work processes to create tighter linkage and coordination among the different tasks.

Parallel structures

This intervention involves organization members in resolving ill-defined, complex problems. , such as cooperative union management projects and quality circles, operate in conjunction with the formal organization and provide members with an alternative setting in which to address problems and propose solutions.

Total Quality Management

This intervention involves organization members in continuously improving quality as part of normal work operations. It includes extensive training in total quality management knowledge and skills and the constant application of that expertise to improve quality at work

High-involvement organizations

This comprehensive intervention designs almost all features of the organization to promote high levels of employee involvement.

Job enrichment

Based on motivational principles, this intervention creates jobs that employees are likely to experience as meaningful with high levels of autonomy and feedback from performing the work. results in high job satisfaction and performance quality, especially for those individuals who have needs for growth and learning at work.

Self-managed work teams

This intervention designs work for teams performing highly interrelated tasks that require real-time decision making._ are typically responsible for a complete product or service and members are able to make decisions and control their own task behaviors without a lot of external controls

Goal setting

This change program involves setting clear and challenging goals. It attempts to improve organization effectiveness by establishing a better fit between personal and organizational objectives. Managers and subordinates periodically meet to plan work, review accomplishments, and solve problems in achieving goals.

Performance appraisal

This intervention is a systematic process of jointly assessing work related achievements, strengths, and weaknesses. It is the primary human resources management intervention for providing performance feedback to individuals and work groups.

Reward systems

This intervention involves the design of organizational rewards to improve employee satisfaction and performance. It includes innovative approaches to pay, promotions, and fringe benefits

Coaching and mentoring

This intervention helps executives and employees to clarify their goals, deal with potential stumbling blocks, and improve their performance. It often involves a one-on-one relationship between the OD practitioner and the client and focuses on personal learning that gets transferred into organizational results and more effective leadership skills

Management and leadership development

The focus of these interventions is on building the competencies needed to lead the organization in the future and includes traditional classroom lectures as well as simulations, action learning, and case studies.

Career planning and development

This intervention helps people choose organizations and career paths and attain career objectives.

Managing workforce diversity

This change program makes human resources practices more responsive to a variety of individual needs. Important trends, such as the increasing number of women, ethnic minorities, and physically and mentally challenged people in the workforce, require a more flexible set of policies and practices.

Employee stress and wellness

These interventions include employee assistance programs (EAPs) and stress management. EAPs are counseling programs that help employees deal with substance abuse and mental health, marital, and financial problems that often are associated with poor work performance.

Organizational design

address the different elements that comprise the “architecture” of the organization, including structure, work design, human resources practices, and management processes.

Integrated strategic change

This comprehensive OD intervention describes how planned change can make a value-added contribution to strategic management. It argues that business strategies and organizational systems must be changed together in response to external and internal disruptions.

Culture change

This intervention helps an organization develop a culture (behaviors, values, beliefs, and norms) appropriate to its strategy and competitive environment. It focuses on developing a strong organization culture to keep organization members pulling in the same direction

Dynamic strategy making

This intervention helps organizations build a strategic system that can adapt continually to changing conditions. It involves both the content (the “what”) of strategy formulation and the process (the “how” and “who”) of strategy implementation

Self-designing organizations

This change program helps organizations gain the capacity to alter themselves fundamentally. It is a highly participative process involving multiple stakeholders in setting strategic directions and designing and implementing appropriate structures and systems.

Learning organizations

This intervention involves increasing the organization’s capability to acquire and develop new knowledge, including how that knowledge can be organized and used to improve organization performance.

Built-to-change organizations

This approach to continuous change challenges the traditional assumption that stability is the key to organizational success. Built-to-tochange organizations, on the other hand, assume that the source of effectiveness is the ability to change continuously.

Mergers and acquisitions

This intervention describes how OD practitioners can assist two or more organizations to form a new entity. Addressing key strategic, leadership, and cultural issues prior to the legal and financial transaction helps to smooth subsequent operational integration of the organizations.

Alliances

This collaborative intervention helps two organizations pursue common goals through the sharing of resources, including intellectual property, people, capital, technology, capabilities, or physical assets.

Networks

This intervention helps to develop relationships among three or more organizations to perform tasks or solve problems that are too complex for single organizations to resolve. It helps organizations recognize the need for partnerships and develop appropriate structures for implementing them. It also addresses how to manage change within existing networks.

The extent to which it fits the needs of the organization

concerns the extent to which the intervention is relevant to the organization and its members.

Valid information

is the result of an accurate diagnosis of the organization’s functioning. It must reflect fairly what organization members perceive and feel about their primary concerns and issues.

Free and informed

suggests that members are actively involved in making decisions about the changes that will affect them. This principle also means that they can choose not to participate and that interventions will not be imposed on them. This is an important distinction between change management—where a change legitimately can be imposed on people

Internal commitment

The degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes

interventions are intended to produce specific results, they must be based on valid knowledge that those outcomes actually can be produced. Otherwise, there is no scientific basis for designing an effective OD intervention.

the extent to which it transfers change management competence to organization members.

States that intervention should transfer competence to the target member organization

Contingencies

these in change situations can affect intervention success. These include individual differences among organization members (e.g., needs for autonomy), organizational factors (e.g., management style and technical uncertainty), and dimensions of the change process itself (e.g., degree of top-management support). Unless these factors are taken into account, designing an intervention will have little impact on organizational functioning or, worse, it may produce negative results.

National culture

states that since OD was developed by america and western european, its practices and methods are usually based by the values and assumptions of these developers. Thus, if the OD is implemented in other places or culture it may cause problems since their values and assumptions are not the same. Thats why applying OD in other places requires “Context based” approach, where it involves fitting the change process or intervention to the org culture or members values

Context orientation

This value talks abt how info is conveyed and time is valued

Low context cultures

These cultures communicate direct w/ words n phrases. They literally mean what they say. They value time

High Context Cultures

These cultures reflect the message more than the word. Time is fluid and flexible.

Power Distance

This value concerns the way people view authority status differences, and influence patterns

Low power distance cultures

High power distance cultures

these cultures adopt the unequal power distribution and are seen as normal. They accept unequal distribution of power and influence.

Uncertainty Avoidance

This value reflects the preference of people for conservative practices, familiar and predictable situations.

Low uncertainty avoidance cultures

High uncertainty avoidance cultures

these cultures prefer to maintain the statues quo. They conform because they dont want conflict and rules should not be broken. Prefer not to take risk

Achievement orientation

this value reflects the culture if they favor the the acquisition of power and resources (achiveing goals n power)

Low achievement orientation cultures

these cultures are less driven by achievements, status or salary increase. They are more motivated by working conditions and opportunities to learn and grow.

High achievement orientation cultures

these cultures have high value for career advancement and salary growth

Individualism

This value reflects with looking out for oneself

Low individualism cultures

tend to focus on cooperation and loyalty to company. Tend to conform

High individualism cultures

personal initiatives and competitiveness are valued. They often have high turn over rates and they prefer make an individual decision making rather than group.

Subsistence economies

their economies are agriculture based. They consume most what they produce, and any surplus is used to barter for other goods and services. “Employment” is uncommon as exchange for wages is not common or understood. Few large org few exist outside the government (private companies)

Industrializing economies

their economies are moderately developed and tend to be rich in natural resources. They generally focus on efficiency of operations and revenue growth.

Industrial economies

their economies are highly developed countries, they emophasize on nonagricultural industry. Manufactured goods are traded to industrialized countries (yung pngalawa). Technology is often substituted for labor. OD have strongest effects in these countries

Contingencies related to target of change
Mga problem that may affect the intervention