PSCL 101 Reading Notes: Methods, Genetics, and Evolution - Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from the lecture notes on research methods, statistics, neuroscience, behavioral genetics, GXE, and evolutionary psychology.

Scientific Method

Process of testing ideas through systematic, direct observation and evidence.

Theory

A set of propositions explaining how and why people act, think, or feel.

Data

Empirical observations used to test theories.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about what will happen if a theory is correct.

Replication

Repeating a study with a new sample to verify findings.

Independent Variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment (the cause).

Dependent Variable

The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV (the effect).

Measured Variable

Variable whose values are recorded (observed).

Manipulated Variable

Variable actively changed by the researcher (often the IV).

Operational Definition

Specific, measurable procedures used to define a variable.

Self-Report

Data gathered from participants’ own answers (surveys, questionnaires).

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in its natural environment with minimal interference.

Case Study

In-depth study of one or a few individuals.

Descriptive Research

Describes phenomena or one variable at a time (often via surveys or observations).

Survey

Descriptive method using self-reported data from a sample.

Population of Interest

The broader group the researcher aims to understand.

Sample

A subset of the population actually studied.

Random Sampling

Sample selection with every member of the population having equal chance of selection.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups in an experiment.

Experimental Group

Group that receives the manipulation (IV present).

Control Group

Group that does not receive the manipulation (IV absent).

Placebo

Inactive treatment; participants may expect improvement even without real treatment.

Correlation

A relationship between two or more variables observed without manipulation.

Scatterplot

Graph used to visualize the relationship between two variables.

Causation

A causal claim; one variable directly affects another.

Covariance

A measure of how two variables change together.

Temporal Precedence

Cause must occur before the effect in time.

Internal Validity

Confidence that observed effects are due to manipulation, not confounds.

External Validity

Generalizability of findings to other populations/settings.

Construct Validity

How well the operational definitions capture the intended variables.

Reliability

Consistency of results across measurements or time.

Central Tendency

Typical value of a distribution (mean, median, mode).

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean; measure of variability.

Effect Size

Magnitude of a relationship or difference (e.g., r, d).

P-value

Probability that results would occur by chance if the null hypothesis were true.

Meta-analysis

Statistical synthesis of multiple studies to estimate overall effect.

Neuroscience

Study of the nervous system and brain processes.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer brain layer responsible for higher cognitive functions.

Neuron

Nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system.

Neurodiversity

Variation in brain function across individuals.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an individual.

Phenotype

Observable traits and behaviors resulting from genotype and environment.

Allele

Variant form of a gene; typically two alleles per gene (one from each parent).

Dominant

Allele that typically determines phenotype when present.

Recessive

Allele that expresses phenotype only when paired with another recessive.

Chromosome

Structure carrying genes; humans have 23 pairs.

DNA

Molecule encoding genetic information in genes.

Gene Expression

Turning genes on and off to produce cellular function.

Epigenetics

Environment-driven changes in gene expression without changing DNA sequence.

Heritability

Proportion of phenotypic variation due to genetic variation.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins; share ~100% of their genes.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins; share ~50% of their genes.

Gene-Environment Interaction (GXE)

Genetic predispositions interact with environment to affect outcomes.

Diathesis-Stress Model

Genes confer vulnerability that stress can trigger into a outcome.

Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis

Genetically predisposed individuals are more affected by environmental variation, especially in childhood.

Gene-Environment Correlation (rGE)

Genes correlate with environments; environment shaped by genetic predispositions.

Evocative rGE

Genetic traits evoke certain responses from the environment.

Active rGE

Genetic traits lead individuals to seek out environments.

Passive rGE

Parents’ genes influence both their traits and the environment they provide.

Polygenic Trait

Trait influenced by many genes.

Polygenic Risk Score

Aggregate measure of genetic risk across many genetic loci.

Single-Gene Trait

Trait primarily determined by a single gene (rare in humans).

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of how evolution shapes behavior and mental processes.

Variation

Differences among individuals within a species.

Inheritance

Transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring.

Differential Reproductive Success

Differences in reproductive success that drive natural selection.