behavioral and social sciences CH 1 & 2

Franz Gall

• developed the doctrine of phrenology

• If a particular trait was well developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand

• This expansion would push the area of the skull that covered that part of the brain outward, and therefore causes a bulge on the head

Pierre flourens

• first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain

• Did this by extirpation also known as ablation on rabbits and pigeons

• Various parts of the brain were surgically removed, and the behavior consequences are observed

William James

• founder of American psychology, study how the mind adapt to the environment

• His views formed the foundation for the system of thought in psychology known as functionalism

• Studies how mental processes help individuals and adapt to their environments

John Dewey

• important figure and functionalism because his night 1896 article is seen as it’s inception

• Article criticized the concept of the reflex arc which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts

• Believe that psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it function to adapt to the environment

Paul broca

• examine the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage

• First person to demonstrate specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions

• Studied a person who is unable to speak and discovered that the person disability was due to lesion in a specific area on the left side of the person’s brain

Functionalism

• a broad concept in psychology, philosophy, and sociology focusing on the purpose or function

Hermann von Helmholtz

• first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse

• Also related the measured speed of such impulses reaction time, providing an important early link between behaviors and underlying nervous system activity

• Often credited with the transition of psychology out of the realm of philosophy and into the room of quantifiable natural science

Sir Charles Sherrington

• first inferred the existence of synapses

• Thought that synaptic transmission was an electrical process, but we now know it is primarily a chemical process

Sensory neurons

• Also known as afferent neurons transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

Motor neurons

• also known as efferent neurons transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

Interneurons

• found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types of neurons

• Located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord often linked to reflexive behavior

• Neural circuits called reflex, arcs control this type of reflexive behavior

Central nervous system

• Composed of the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

• Is made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord

• The system includes all 31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord which are called spinal nerves

• Also includes 12 pairs of nerves, emanating directly from the brain called cranial nerves

Somatic nervous system

• consist of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles

• Sensory neurons transmit information toward the CNS through afferent fibers

• Motor impulses in contrast travel form the CNS back to the body along efferent fibers

Autonomic nervous system

• generally, regulates heartbeat, respiration digestion, and glandular secretions

• In other words, this manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands

• Also helps regulate body temperature by activating sweating or piloerection

Piloerection

• The reflexive action of goosebumps forming on skin as small muscles contract, causing hairs to raise

• This reflects falls under the autonomic nervous system, which is also part of the sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic nervous system

• Conserve energy associated with resting and sleeping state

• Act to reduce heart rate and constrict the bronchi

• Is also responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions

Sympathetic nervous system

• Is activated by stress this can include anything from a mild stressor such as keeping up with schoolwork to emergencies that may give her between life and death

• Closely associated with rage and fear reactions also known as fight or flight reactions

When activated the sympathetic nervous system does the following

• Increase heart rate

• heart distributes blood to muscles of locomotion

• Increase blood glucose concentration

• Relaxes the bronchi

• Decreases digestion and peristalsis

• dilated the eyes to maximize light intake

• Releases epinephrine into the bloodstream

Meninges

• The thick three layer covering of the brain

• help protect the brain by keeping it anchored within the skull and also reabsorbing cerebral spinal fluid

Dura Mater

The outer layer of the meninges that is connected directly to the skull

Arachnoid matter

The middle fibrous layer of meninges that has a web like structure

Pia matter

The innermost meninge connected directly to the brain

Cerebral spinal fluid

• Aqueous solution that nourishes the brain and spinal cord

• Provide a protective cushion

• Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles, internal cavities of the brain

Brainstem

• The hindbrain and midbrain were structures developed earlier together they formed this structure

• Most primitive region of the brain

Limbic system

• The forebrain developed later, including this system

• A group of neural structure is primarily associated with emotion and memory

• Aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain are all related to the system

Cerebral cortex

• Most recent evolutionary development of the brain

• Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres

• Is associated with everything from language processing to problem-solving and from impulse control to long-term planning

Hindbrain ( rhombencephalon)

• located where the brain meets the spinal cord controls, balance, motor, coordination, breathing digestion, and general arousal processes, such as sleeping and waking

• Manages, vital function necessary for survival

rhombencephalon In embryonic development

• the structure divides to form the myelencephalon which becomes the medulla oblongata

• And the metencephalon which becomes the ponds and cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

• Lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital function, such as breathing, heart rate and digestion

The pons

• what is above the medulla and contains sensory motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla

Cerebellum

• At the top of the hindbrain mushrooming out of the back of the pons is the structure

• Helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements

Midbrain ( mesencephalon )

• received sensory and motor information from the rest of the body

• Associated with involuntary reflex response is triggered by visual or auditory stimuli

• Several prominent nuclei exist here. Two of which are collectively called colliculi

Superior colliculus

• Receives visual sensory input

Inferior colliculus

• received sensory information from the auditory system

• Has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noise

Forebrain ( prosencephalon)

• associated with complex, perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes

• Associated with emotion and memory. Has the greatest influence on human behavior.

• Functions are not absolutely necessary for survival, but are associated instead with the intellectual and emotional capacities of most characteristics in humans

Telencephalon

• prosencephalon divides into this during prenatal development

• This forms, the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

Diencephalon

• this also forms from the prosencephalon

• Forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and penal gland

Neuropsychology

• Refers to the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain

• Most often applied in research settings were researchers attempt to associate very specific areas in the brain to behavior

Cortical maps

Process in which electrode stimulates neurons in the motor cortex, the stimulation can lead to specific muscle movements. If electrode stimulates the visual cortex, the patient may see flashes of light that are not really there. By using electrical stimulation, neurosurgeons can create this.

Electroencephalogram / EEG

• Electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons can be studied using this

• Involves placing several electrodes on the scalp. Broad patterns of electro activity can thus be detected and recorded.

Regional cerebral blood flow / rCBF

• Detect broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain

• Relies on the assumption that blood flow increases to regions of the brain that are engaged in cognitive function

Computed tomography/ CT

• also known as CAT scan scan, computed axial tomography

• Multiple x-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to produce a cross-sectional image of the tissue

Positron emission tomography/ PET

• radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

Magnetic resonance imaging / MRI

• A magnetic field that interacts with hydrogen atoms is used to map out hydrogen, dense regions of the body

Functional magnetic resonance imaging / fMRI

• uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow

• Is a especially useful for monitoring neural activities since increased blood flow to a region of the brain is typically coupled with its neuronal activation

Thalamus

• structure within the four brain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information

• Including all senses, except for smell

• After receiving incoming stimulus sorts and transmit them to the appropriate areas of this cerebral cortex

• Sensory way station

Hypothalamus

• divided into lateral ventromedial, and anterior sections

• Serve homeostatic functions and as a key player and emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior

• Also helps control some endocrine features as well as autonomic nervous system

• Serves many homeostatic functions, which are self regulatory process that maintain a stable balance within the body

Lateral hypothalamus / LH

• referred to as the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluid fluids

• Triggers, eating, and drinking

Ventromedial hypothalamus / VMH

• defined as the satiety center

• Provide signals to stop eating brain lesions in this area usually lead to obesity

Anterior hypothalamus

• controlled sexual behavior

• In many species damage to the structure leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity

• Also regulate sleep and body temperature

Posterior pituitary

• comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin), and oxytocin

pineal gland

• Secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythm

• Receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

Basal ganglia

• coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information via the extrapyramidal motor system to the brain and spinal cord

Extrapyramidal system

• gathers information about body position carries this information to the central nervous system

• Does not function directly through motor neurons

• Essentially, the basil ganglia helps make our movement smooth and our posture steady

Parkinson’s disease

• Chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia

• Characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting trimmers

• Basal ganglia may also play a role and schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder

Limbic system

• Comprises a group of interconnected structures, looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory

• Primary components include the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex

Septal nuclei

• contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain

• Mild stimulation of this area is reported to be intensely pleasurable. There is an association between these nuclei and addictive behavior.

Amygdala

• A structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage

• When the structure is damaged, aggression and fear reactions are marketed reduced

• Lesions to this area, result, in docility , and hypersexual state

Hippocampus

• Play a vital role in learning and memory processes

• Helps consolidate information to form long-term memories and can re-distribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex

fornix

• That hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through this projection

• Researchers originally discovered the connection between memory and the hippocampus through a famous patient named Henry Molaison

Anterograde amnesia

• A drastic and irreversible loss of memory for any new information

• Characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories, whereas memories for events that occurred before brain injury are usually intact

Retrograde amnesia

Memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury

Anterior cingulate cortex

• functions in higher order, cognitive processes, including regulation of impulse control and decision-making

• Also maintains connection to other parts of the lymbic system in this place a role in emotion and motivation

Cerebral cortex

• outer surface of the brain, sometimes called the neocortex

• Most recent region of the brain to evolve

Gyri

bumps on the surface of the cortex

Sulci

Folds on the surface of the cortex

Cerebral hemispheres

• The cerebrum is divided into two halves

• The surface of the cortex is divided into four lobes, the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital, lobe, and temporal lobe.

Frontal lobe

Comprised of two basic regions, the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex

Prefrontal cortex

• Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions

• To regulate attention and alertness, communicates with the reticular formation in the brain stem, telling an individual either to wake up or to relax, depending on the situation

Association area

• Because the prefrontal cortex integrates information from different cortical regions, the prefrontal cortex is a good example of this, which is an area that integrates input from diverse regions of

Projection areas

• Association areas are generally contrasted with these

• These structures perform more rudimentary perceptual and motor tasks

• An example of this is the primary motor cortex which is located on the precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus

Primary motor cortex

• Example of a projection area

• Divides the frontal and parietal lobes

• Initiate voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles

Precentral gyrus

located in the frontal lobe and is primarily responsible for the execution of voluntary motor movements, as it contains the primary motor cortex.

Central sulcus

a prominent groove in the brain that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe, serving as a key landmark for identifying various brain regions, including the primary motor cortex and somatosensory cortex.

Motor homunucleus

A visual representation of the body that illustrates the areas of the primary motor cortex responsible for controlling different muscle groups, highlighting the relationship between motor function and body part proportion.

Broker's area

• An area in the frontal lobe associated with speech production and language processing, typically located in the left hemisphere of the brain.

Parietal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex located behind the frontal lobe, responsible for processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain, as well as spatial awareness and navigation.

Somatosensory cortex

A part of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the body, particularly touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.

Postcentral gyrus

The part of the parietal lobe located immediately posterior to the central sulcus, responsible for processing tactile and sensory information from the body.

Occipital lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, responsible for visual processing and interpretation.

Visual cortex / striate cortex

The region in the occipital lobes tasked with processing visual information from the eyes, playing a key role in interpreting shapes, colors, and motion.

Temporal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex located on the sides of the brain, responsible for processing auditory information and involved in memory and emotion.

Auditory cortex

The area within the temporal lobes that processes auditory information, crucial for recognizing sounds and understanding language.

Wernicke’s area

A region in the left temporal lobe associated with language comprehension and processing, playing a key role in understanding spoken and written language.

ipsilaterally

refers to structures that are on the same side of the body or brain. In neuroanatomy, it indicates that an action or effect occurs on the same side as a specific location or injury.

Dominant hemisphere

the half of the brain that is typically responsible for language and logical processing, usually the left hemisphere in right-handed individuals.

Non-dominant hemisphere

typically refers to the hemisphere of the brain that is not primarily responsible for language processing, often associated with spatial abilities, artistic skills, and emotional expression.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Agonist

A substance that stimulates a response by binding to a receptor, mimicking the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that inhibits a response by binding to a receptor, blocking the action of a neurotransmitter.

catecholamines

a class of neurotransmitters that include dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, involved in regulating mood, arousal, and stress responses.

monoamines

a group of neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, that play key roles in mood regulation and emotional responses.

biogenic amines

A group of neurotransmitters derived from amino acids, including histamine, serotonin, and dopamine, that are crucial for various brain functions and emotional regulation.

Epinephrine (adrenaline)

A hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal glands, involved in the body's fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles.

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in arousal, attention, and regulation of mood. It plays a critical role in the body's stress response.

Dopamine

• A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor control.

• important role in movement posture

Schizophrenia

• A severe mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language, and sense of self, often leading to social withdrawal and impaired functioning.

• An imbalance in dopamine transmission has been found to play a role in this mental illness

Parkinson's disease

• A neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects movement, leading to tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. It is associated with a decrease in dopamine production in the brain.

• Associated with dopaminergic neurons in the baseball ganglia

Serotonin

• A neurotransmitter that contributes to mood regulation, appetite, and sleep. It plays a role in feelings of well-being and happiness.

• Like Norepinephrine is thought to play a role in depression and mania