A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
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recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
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relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
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Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
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storage
the retention of encoded information over time
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retrieval
the process of getting formation out of memory.
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parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
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sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
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long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
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working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
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automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
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explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
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implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
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iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
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testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
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shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
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deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
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semantic encoding
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
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episodic
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
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flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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LTP (long-term potentiation)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
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mood congruent
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
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retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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repress
the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
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retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
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proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
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source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
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Concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
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creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
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convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
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divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
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Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
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Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
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confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
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mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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represetativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
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availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
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belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
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context effects
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
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phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
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Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
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Syntax
Sentence structure
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aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
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Universal Grammar (Chomsky)
Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure
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linguistic determinism (Whorf)
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
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self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
Studied by 3 people
