Unit 3 Ap psych

Development

Involves physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes that occur across the lifespan.

Developmental theories

Frameworks for understanding how individuals grow and evolve over time.

Nature

Influence of genetics and biology on development.

Nurture

Environmental factors such as parenting, education, and culture.

Nature-nurture debate

Examines the respective roles of heredity and environment in shaping human development.

Continuity

Suggests that development is a gradual, cumulative process.

Discontinuity

Views development as occurring in distinct stages marked by qualitative differences.

Critical periods

Specific phases in development when certain experiences or stimuli are particularly influential on future growth, such as language acquisition.

Plasticity

The brain’s capacity to change and adapt in response to experiences, especially during sensitive periods in early development.

Prenatal development

Occurs from conception to birth and includes the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

Germinal stage

First two weeks, involves rapid cell division and implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus.

Embryonic stage

Weeks 3-8, is characterized by the development of major organs and systems.

Fetal stage

Week 9 to birth, involves rapid growth and further development of organs and systems.

Infancy and toddlerhood

Birth to age 2, is marked by rapid physical growth, development of basic motor skills, and the formation of attachment relationships.

Early childhood

Ages 2-6, is characterized by the development of language, social skills, and self-regulation.

Middle childhood

Ages 6-11, involves the development of logical thinking, social comparison, and increased independence.

Adolescence

Ages 11-18, is a period of significant physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes, including puberty, abstract thinking, and identity formation.

Early adulthood

Ages 18-40, is characterized by the establishment of intimate relationships, career development, and possibly parenthood.

Middle adulthood

Ages 40-65, involves continued personal and professional growth, as well as potential challenges (midlife crisis, caring for aging parents).

Late adulthood

Ages 65+, is marked by retirement, reflection on life experiences, and adaptation to physical and cognitive changes associated with aging.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development stages

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Sensorimotor stage

Birth to age 2, involves the development of object permanence and basic problem-solving skills.

Preoperational stage

Ages 2-7, is characterized by the emergence of symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and animism.

Concrete operational stage

Ages 7-11, involves the development of logical thinking, conservation, and reversibility.

Formal operational stage

Ages 11+, is marked by the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and consider multiple perspectives.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Refers to the range of tasks a child can complete with guidance from a more skilled individual.

Scaffolding

Involves providing support and guidance to help a child master new skills and concepts.

Information processing theory

Compares the human mind to a computer, with attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving as key components.

Metacognition

Refers to the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes and strategies for learning and problem-solving.

Attachment theory, developed by Bowlby and Ainsworth

Emphasizes the importance of early caregiver-infant relationships for social and emotional development.

Secure attachment

Is characterized by trust, comfort, and exploration in the presence of a caregiver.

Insecure attachment styles (avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized)

Are associated with inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving.

Erikson's psychosocial theory

Proposes eight stages of development, each characterized by a specific conflict or challenge (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt).

Self-concept

Refers to an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions about themselves, which develop through social interactions and self-reflection.

Emotional regulation

Involves the ability to manage and express emotions appropriately, which develops through modeling and support from caregivers.

Moral development, as described by Kohlberg

Progresses from a focus on obedience and punishment to an understanding of universal ethical principles.

Preconventional level

Ages 2-9, is characterized by a focus on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

Conventional level

Ages 9-20, involves conformity to social norms and expectations.

Postconventional level

Ages 20+, is marked by the development of autonomous moral reasoning based on universal principles.

Social cognition

Involves the ability to understand and interpret the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of others (theory of mind).

Language development

Involves the acquisition of phonology (sound system), morphology (word structure), syntax (grammar), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (language use in context).

Babbling

A precursor to language development, typically emerging around 6 months of age.

First words

Usually appear around 12 months, followed by a rapid increase in vocabulary and the emergence of two-word phrases (telegraphic speech).

Nativist theories

Such as Chomsky's language acquisition device (LAD), propose that humans are born with an innate capacity for language learning.

Interactionist theories

Emphasize the role of social interaction and environmental input in language development.

Joint attention

Or shared focus between a child and caregiver, facilitates language learning.

Parentese

Or child-directed speech, is characterized by simplified grammar, exaggerated intonation, and repetition.

Bilingualism

Or the acquisition of two languages, can occur simultaneously (learning both from birth) or sequentially (learning a second language after the first is established).

Critical period hypothesis

Suggests that there is a limited window during early development when language acquisition is most efficient and effortless.

Classical conditioning

Discovered by Pavlov, involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response.

Acquisition

Occurs when the neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, eliciting the conditioned response.

Extinction

Refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Developed by Skinner, involves learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment).

Positive reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by providing a desirable consequence (praise, rewards).

Negative reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus (taking pain medication to relieve a headache).

Positive punishment

Weakens a behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus (scolding a child for misbehaving).

Negative punishment

Weakens a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus (taking away a child's toy for misbehaving).

Observational learning

Or modeling, involves learning by observing and imitating others.

Bandura's social learning theory

Emphasizes the role of attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation in observational learning.

Insight learning

Involves solving problems through sudden understanding or realization, rather than trial and error.

Latent learning

Refers to learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated later when incentives are provided.

Harlow's monkey studies

Demonstrated the importance of contact comfort and attachment in social and emotional development.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Experiment identified different attachment styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent) based on infants' responses to separation and reunion with caregivers.

Bandura's Bobo doll

Experiment showed that children can learn aggressive behaviors through observation and imitation.

Piaget's conservation

Tasks revealed that children's understanding of concepts like volume and number changes as they progress through the stages of cognitive development.

Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Highlighted the role of social interaction and guidance in cognitive development.

Skinner's operant conditioning

Experiments with pigeons and rats demonstrated the principles of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.

Skeels and Dye's Iowa orphanage

Study showed the positive impact of environmental enrichment on cognitive and social development in institutionalized children.

Hart and Risley's

Study on language exposure in early childhood found significant differences in the quantity and quality of language input between low-income and high-income families.

Developmental psychology

Studies how individuals grow and change throughout life, focusing on chronological milestones, recurring patterns, and the balance between stability and change.

Teratogens

Substances that can harm the developing fetus and lead to birth defects or developmental issues.

Gross motor skills

Involve large muscle movements like crawling, walking, and running.

Fine motor skills

Require precise, coordinated movements of the hands and fingers.

Reflexes

Are automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli.

Visual cliff experiment

Developed by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk to study depth perception in infants.

Critical periods

Are specific time windows during development when the brain is highly sensitive to certain experiences.

Imprinting

Is a rapid, instinctive learning process that occurs during a critical period in some animal species.

Puberty

Marks the transition from childhood to adulthood and is triggered by hormonal changes.

The adolescent growth spurt

Is a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty.

Primary sex characteristics

Are the reproductive organs that develop during puberty.

Secondary sex characteristics

Are physical features that distinguish males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Menopause

The cessation of menstruation, typically occurs in females around age 50.

Gender

Refers to the social and cultural roles associated with being male, female, or non-binary, while sex is biologically based (male, female).

Sexual orientation

Refers to an individual's pattern of physical, romantic, or emotional attraction to others.

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

Exploration through senses and actions; object permanence develops.

Preoperational (2-7 years)

Symbolic thought, egocentrism, and limited logic.

Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

Logical thought about concrete events; mastery of conservation.

Formal Operational (12+ years)

Abstract and systematic thinking develops.

Babbling Stage

Repetition of sounds, typically around 6-8 months.

One-Word Stage

Single words used to communicate, around age 1.

Two-Word Stage

Basic sentence structure, typically around age 2.

Complex Speech

Expands vocabulary and grammar over time.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate biological mechanism called the Language Acquisition Device, which allows them to acquire language.

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

John Bowlby, the founder of attachment theory, emphasized that the emotional bond between a child and their primary caregiver (often the mother) is crucial for healthy psychological development.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth expanded on Bowlby’s work by conducting the Strange Situation experiment, which observed infants’ reactions to a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Show distress when the caregiver leaves but are quickly comforted upon their return. These children use the caregiver as a secure base, showing confidence in exploring their surroundings.

Avoidant Attachment

Do not show strong distress when the caregiver leaves and may avoid the caregiver upon return. They appear emotionally distant and are less likely to seek comfort from the caregiver.

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

Display intense distress when the caregiver leaves and are not easily comforted upon their return. They may cling to the caregiver but also show resistance, reflecting uncertainty and insecurity.

Emotional regulation

Involves learning to recognize, express, and control emotions appropriately.