AP Psychology Module 31-33

memory

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Ebbinghaus

as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

retention

The proportion of material retained (remembered).

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously(stop sign example)

Atkinson and Shiffrin

3 stage model of sensory intake and memory storage. (Sensory memory, Short term memory, and Long term memory.)

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system (1/20th of a second)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent storage of information (days, weeks, and years)

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage (to rehearse something and keep it in the short term memory)

Baddeley's model of working memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously but we know (skills) E.g. riding a bike or swimming

Automatic processing and Implicit Memory

Without conscious effort you automatically process 1. Space (where in your notes was a certain word) 2. Time (if you lose something you retrace your footsteps) 3. Frequency (we effortlessly keep track of how many times something happens (This is the third time I ran into her)

Effortful processing and Explicit Memory

Like learning to read and wright, effortful processing can become automatic. And then there is sensory memory

Sensory memory and George Sperling

People viewed three rows of letters each for 1/20th of a second. When asked to read back what they saw, most could recall about half but when asked to recall one row, most recalled it perfectly. was it because of time. No, people could actually see and recall all nine letters, but it had to be 3 at a time. This was named iconic memory.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a !!!few tenths of a second!!!

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within !!!3 or 4 seconds!!!

George Miller

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory

Petersons

Discovered the duration of short-term memory, which is very short. Memory is lost if it is not rehearsed. By varying the amount of time passing, could evaluate how long the three-letter cluster remained in STM without rehearsal.

Willingham

We do better and more efficient work when focused, no distractions, and one work at a time.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically or without even noticing(memorizing all the numbers of a football team)

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (when associating a word with numbers, letters, memorable places, or other words)

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

shallow processing

encoding verbal information on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

explicit memory

either semantic or episodic

semantic memory

facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

experienced events

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. (save button and loading dock)

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory sleep supports this (memories aren't stored in the hippo-campus, they are stored in all of your brain. the hippo-campus is the temporary loading dock)

Cerrebellum

part of the brain that controls balance, movement, and coordination and plays a key role in forming implicit memories (motor skills). With a damaged cerebellum a person can't develop certain conditioned reflexes such as blinking during the glaucoma test. (test for optic nerve damage)

basla ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement (riding a bike). receive input from the cortex but do not return the favor of sending information back to the cortex so you're not aware of motor fynctions

The Amygdala

Our emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation. When we are excited or stressed, these hormones make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity, signalling the brain that something important has happened. Moreover, stress hormones provoke the amygdala (two limbic system, emotion-processing clusters) to initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia and to boost activity in the brains memory-forming areas. Emotional arousal and sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for neutral events around the same time. Flashbulb memories

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event. (9/11, 1989 San Francisco Earthquake)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Adequate sleep

best memory retainer

memory retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory (memories are held in a web of associations)

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory (helps you remember) E.g. leaving a pen on your desk to help you remember to do your homework

context dependent memory

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval. When you visit your old childhood homes, memories resurface

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primary effect

tendency to recall the first terms of list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

antegrade amnesia

a loss of memory for events that occur immediately after the injury

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

storage decay

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Ebbinghaus

created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues (one the tip of my tongue)

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

repressed memories

Real memories that have been pushed out of consciousness because they are emotionally threatening

memory construction errors

Memory is not precise. We infer our past from stored information plus what we later imagined, expected, saw, and heard. We don't just retrieve memories, we reweave them. Information acquired after an event alters memory of the event. We often construct memories as we encode them, and every time we relay a memory, we replace the original with a slightly modified version. (crash course video= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVWbrNls-Kw)

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

imagination effect

occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories

source amnesia(misattribution)

attributing to the wrong source when hearing, reading, experiencing, or imagining an event (when comedians think they made up a joke but they actually heard it from someone else or read it)

discerning true and false memories

Because memory is reconstruction as well as reproduction, we can't be sure whether a memory is real by how real it feels. Much as perceptual illusions may seem like real perceptions, unreal memories feel like real memories.

improving memory

rehearse repeatedly, make the material meaningful, activate retrieval cues, use mnemonic devices, minimize interference, sleep more, test your own knowledge