WHAP Unit 0, 4, 5

Key

• ~ Mostly/One of the Most

• Unit 0 (#EEEEEE)

• Unit 4 (#FFE5E5) 1450-1750

• Unit 5 (#E3FFE5) 1750-1900

Context: History Before 1200 CE

Human Development to c. 600 BCE

First Humans

First appeared 200k-100k BCE East Africa in small hunter-gatherer, egalitarian but patriarchal groups w/ no permanent homes

• Search for food = new environments, genetics, (stone & fire) tools, cultures (paintings)

• 100k-60k years ago = movement beyond East Africa

• 10k BCE = humans on all continents but Antarctica

Agricultural Revolution

8K BCE Ends Ice Age = Global Warming = Plant & Animal Domestication (began in Middle Eastern Fertile Crescent) = Agricultural Surplus led to:

• Growing population & permanent cities: often est. city-states (Independent state with a city and its peripheries) in river valleys w/ fresh water & fertile soil

• Non-agricultural jobs: gov & tax records led to writing

• Tech: wheel, irrigation, stone to metal tools

• Stricter social classes: patriarchy & more competition for wealth

Egypt

Industrial Revolution

The Ottoman sultan ruled in name in Egypt, but all the political power was in the Mamluks. After unsuccessfully retaking Egypt through a 1801 military campaign, he agreed to local leaders electing Albanian Ottoman officer Muhammad Ali as governor. In an attempt to westernize Egypt, he trained his military officers in France and created the first official newspaper in Dar al-Islam. His extreme taxes on peasants and secularizing religious lands brought high profits from agricultural production under government control, especially when the Napoleonic Wars made European wheat expensive. Cairo armament factories, Alexandria navies, and small workshops selling uniform parts competed with Britain and France.

Although they were one of the first producers of textiles in trade, exporting carpets, silks, etc. to Europe in the 1700s, European exports destroyed Egypt’s global and domestic market in the 1850s.

India

Prehistorical Indus: Indian subcontinent, little known b/c indecipherable language

• Mohenjo-Daro & Harappa: traded w/ Mesopotamia, indoor plumbing, & planned urban layout

• Hinduism: 3500 yrs ago, Aryans moved from North Himalayas to Pakistan & India (poly to mono: many gods = many faces of one God)

  • The Vedas: soul reincarnates until liberated, strict caste system w/ no social mobility

Buddhism: Dev. by Siddhartha Gautama, born in 530 BCE to a wealthy Hindu family & led a life of poverty to seek the cause of human suffering, became enlightened under Bodhi Tree

• Four Noble Truths: follows Eightfold Path to reach nirvana & end reincarnation by refraining from earthly pleasures

  • rejects Hinduism’s caste

-Mauryan Empire: 322 BCE - 187 BCE Unity in South Asia under Buddhism

• Ruler Ashoka: (Hinduist to Buddhist) made efficient tax system, connected commercial centers, & spread legal knowledge thru scriptures on pillars

-Gupta Empire: 320 CE - 550 CE Unity in Pataliputra after Hindu reform (addressed ordinary interests & healthy materialism) obscured Buddhism

• Advances: med tech (inoculations prevented disease) & modern numeric system (0-9, place value)

-Indian Ocean Basin

• Maritime route made possible by monsoon winds

  • April-September: Winds from Africa & Arabian Sea brought severe rains to South & Southeast Asia

  • November-February: Winds from Arid Tibet & Himalayas back to Africa brought severe drought

• Emergence of port-cities

  • West: Arabian/African products like gold, copper, ivory, & coffee & South Asian products like cotton textiles, dye, & pepper

  • SA-SEA: traded spices & scented woods

  • SEA-EA: Chinese exported silk textiles, tea, sugar, & luxury goods

*See Britain for British Colonization and Company Rule (British East India Company’s rule over Indian subcontinent 1757-1858)

Industrial Revolution

Once Europe became the dominating force in global trade, India’s share in manufacturing declined.

Shipbuilding had a brief revival in the late 1600s due to Western political allies, but mismanagement of resources by British colonists led to the EIC’s 1830 Indian Navy to be replaced by Britain’s Royal Navy in 1863, which took complete control of the Indian Ocean.

The EIC’s steep tariffs and the Arms Act of 1878 shut down India’s mining, metalworking, and firearm industries by closing mines in fear of subjects gathering ammunition after the Rebellion of 1857. It only reopened after the 1900s when crude, labor-intensive techniques made mineral-rich deposits, like the Rajasthan state, “inaccessible”

India was one of the first and largest producers of textiles, so Lancaster textile mills pressured the British government to put an “equalizing” 5% tax on all textiles from over 80 Bombay mills, reducing its profitability.

China

Zhou Dynasty: 1076 BCE - 256 BCE stability in China

• Mandate of Heaven: Heaven justified empires & corrupt leaders = natural disasters

Confucianism: Most influential philosophy in China after instability after Zhou Dynasty led to new philosophies (included Daoism = harmony w/ nature)

• Analects: harmony b/w ppl thru education, respect for rulers, patriarchy, filial piety, NOT deities

Qin Dynasty: 221 BCE - 207 BCE stability under Qin Shi Huangdi

• standardized Chinese script, est. Measurement systems, canals, roads

Han Dynasty: 206 BCE - 220 CE stability under Han Wadi & Confucianism

• pop growth, better tech, luxury trade

• Civil Service Exam: allowed social stability in gov.

Industrial Revolution

For 2,500 years, bribes among bureaucrats and purchased government positions led to corruption and debt, and the straying from Confucian ideals.

Increasingly dominant powers from the west led to China’s late 1800s Self-Strengthening Movement to advance their military and artisans with Britain and France’s help. However, after their defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, reform clubs pushed Emperor Guangxu to enact the Hundred Days of Reform and eliminate the civil service exam, corruption, and establishment of Western-styled institutions. However, his conservative guardian, Empress Dowager Cixi, imprisoned him and blocked all reform until the end of her term when she recognized the corruption among bureaucracy. She finally accepted American and European modernization and protection from Japanese encroachment.

China becomes a republic in 1911.

Ancient Greek, Roman, Persian Empires

Archaemenid Empire: 559 BCE - 330 BCE modern-day Iran under Cyrus the Great

• Satraps (district leaders) & long military roads for governing large empire

• efficient bureaucracy & trade

• religious & ethnic diversity

Greek Empire: 550 BCE - 336 BCE polytheistic, patriarchal, decentralized gov b/c of islands & mountains

• 300s: Alexander the Great spread Greek culture to Hellenistic world

• Sparta: powerful military

• Athens: adv. in art, philosophy (late 400s BCE) & democracy

Roman Empire: 509 BCE - 476 CE

• Polytheistic, slavery, adv. in gov (representative gov & 12 Tables), less patriarchal

• Overextended, corrupt military = epidemics, econ & urban pop decline, invasions

Christianity: Devotion to Jesus = better afterlife, led to his execution by Romans

• Roman Empire est. the divinity of emperor = persecution & diaspora of Jewish ppl

• Universalized throughout Roman Empire by 100 CE & made official religion by Constantine in 300 CE

Byzantine Empire: 330 CE - 1453 CE

• East Rome became more powerful & divided Roman Empire (395) into West (capital Rome) & East (capital Constantinople in 330 CE)

• Entrepôt in capital b/c Mediterranean & Black seas

• made Hagia Sophia (537 CE) & Justinian Code (used into 19th century

America

Teotihuacan: Multicultural urban area in modern day Mexico-City & grid layout

• “City of the Gods” one of the largest cities, abandoned by 650

The Mayans: 250 CE - 900 CE decentralized theocracy

• created accurate calendar & understood the importance of 0

  -Popol Vuh: How gods made humans out of maize & water

Ottoman Empire

Industrial Revolution

The Ottoman Empire didn’t adopt Enlightenment ideals or Western technology. Corruption led to rapid decline and unrest. After WWI, it fragmented into the Republic of Turkey and several other small states.

Flow of wealth from European colonies into the Mediterranean increased cash and banking after the Congress of Vienna. Sultan Mahmud II reformed the Ottoman Empire by:

• 1826 Abolished Janissaries

• 1831 Abolished feudalism, ending Janissaries’ power & sending tax straight to gov. to pay European trained military

• European-styled ministries

• Roads & postal service

• Directory of charities to fight popular religious charities

The Tanzimat (Reorganization after Mahmud II 1839-1876) discouraged long-time corruption, but did not mention women:

• Edu. under ulama → secular schools

• Law reforms: Commercial & penal code for easier foreign business

• 1856 Hatt-i Humayun: Equality for all men & regulated millets (different religious courts)

Many Christian Balkans felt oppressed while Muslims felt traditions were violated. Also, most industrial jobs went to men while women lost the ability to hold money, gain inheritance, get education, and create trusts unlike under shariah.

While Sultan Abdulhamid (Red Sultan) initially supported reforms in his crowning of 1876, he maintained tight control to avoid seditious reform. He exiled the reform group Young Turks, oppressed Assyrian Christians, and massacred 100-250,000 Armenians (Hamidian Massacre).

Ottomanism, a movement that aimed to create a more modern, unified stated through minimizing ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences, emerged in the 1870s-80s. Local schools were mandated to have a standard curriculum. This instead promoted feelings of self-determination from subjects.

Unit 4 Context: Maritime Technology

The first global trade networks were supported by European states as they began to establish colonies and trading post empires, leading to the Columbian Exchange that facilitated growing Afro-Eurasian populations and demand. However, these ports were first founded in the Indian Ocean where technology advanced maritime trade.

Intellectual Advances

• Astronomy: Astronomical charts = Greek & Asian knowledge of stars thru Al-Andalus + 1609 telescope

  • Sailing Down Latitude Method: Know location by recording latitude & altitude thru angle of North Star at home → Keep star at constant angle → Replaced w/ Sun as star disappeared under horizon at equator

• Newton’s Discovery of Gravity: Led to knowledge of tides → accurate prediction of water depth + wind direction & intensity

• Literature: Cardinal’s legends & accounts + Ptolemy = Underestimated ocean’s size

Compass

• Gyroscope: Wheel/disk spins on axis to determine star

• Magnetic Compass: Chinese invention; free-moving magnets follow Earth’s magnetic field

Gunpowder: Aided conquests (like Dutch Sea Beggars/Pirates)

Astrolabe: Islamic innovation; Determines how far north/south of equator

Post-classical Ships

• Junks: 300-400 ft. Chinese “treasure ships” w/ watertightness + pumps to release water/fight fires + many masts, square sails, & few ropes + easy steering

  • Naval Artillery: Heavy lead/stone/iron balls = Guns on waist’s holes reduced recoil + shortened Cannons w/ tapering bronze/brass barrels

  • Stern Rudder: Improved maneuverability

  • After Zheng He: Yuan + Islamic influence = Ming limits private foreign trade + destroys dockyards + rebuilds Great Wall & Confucianism

• Dhows: Small, Arab/Indian, *carvel-built trade ships that dominated Indian Ocean

  • Lateen Sail: Triangular sail caught wind at all directions, proportional, heavy wooden yards limited ship size

Early Modern Ships: Incorporated post-classical ships in Vikings’ clink-built (overlapping planks nailed into hull’s skeleton) ships

• Caravel: 1400s-1600s Portuguese/Spanish expedition ships w/ 75 ft. length + 2-3 masts of lateen sails

  • Carvel-built: Edge-to-edge planks = any length + more flexibility

    • Carracks: 1300s-1600s Portuguese trading ships inspired from caravels in 1500s w/ 150 ft. length + 3-4 masts of lateen & square; bulkier + faster + easier steering + gun platforms + easy to topple

• Fluyt: 1500s-1600s Dutch trading ships w/ 80 ft. length + 2-3 masts of square sails + faster, lighter, & bulkier

• Galleons: 1500s-1700s Spanish war & trade ships w/ 100-200 ft. length + featuring 3-4 masts of lateen & square sails

Unit 4 Context: Motivation for Europe

Wealth

• Trade: Undesirable goods + Indian Ocean spice trade

  • Monopoly: Exclusive rights over supply/trade of goods/services

• Primogeniture laws: Eldest son inherits land = younger siblings unemployed

• Gold & Silver: Measured their wealth

Culture

• Religion: Spread Christianity + Flee from persecution

• Glory: Adventure + converts + competition = wealth

Unit 5 Context

By 1750, large multi-ethnic empires prospered global maritime trade through mercantilism, colonialism, and a monarchal structure. However, the Enlightenment (the movement that emphasized individualism and rationalism (reason) over community values and tradition) challenged nobility and supported ideas from:

• Medieval Scholasticism: the bridge between faith and reason with classical Greek/Roman philosophy

• Renaissance: the revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman culture

  • humanism: focus on individuals over God

• Scientific Revolution: the rise of secular reasoning in the period of religious schisms in Europe

  • empiricism: belief that knowledge comes from sensed experiences rather than religion and tradition

“The Age of Isms”

Nationalism: Feeling of intense loyalty to others who share one’s language and culture

Zionism: Desire of Jews to reest. independent homeland where past ancestors lived in Middle East b/c rampant discrimination in Europe

• Theodor Herzyl: Austro-Hungarian Jewish leader

• Dreyfus Affair: 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, Jewish French military officer, falsely accused of treason against gov. w/ forged docs., demonstrated anti-Semitism in ~least anti-Semitic countries

• Israel: est. 1948 in previously Ottoman & ~Muslim land

Social Contract: Resulted in political life

• Thomas Hobbes: give up some rights to central government for order

• John Locke: citizens’ right and responsibility to revolt against unjust gov.

  • Natural Rights: to life, liberty, & pursuit of property

  • Tabula Rasa: Born as “blank slate” & influenced by environment (challenged notions that individuals inherited personality traits)

The Philosophes: 1700s Scientific thinkers who explored political, economic, & social theories

• Adam Smith: ~Most influential thinkers of Enlightenment w/ Wealth of Nations (1776), from Scotland

  • Laissez-faire: Reduced gov. intervention in economic decisions

  • Capitalism: Economic system where means of production (ex. factories & natural resources) are privately owned for profit

• Baron Montesquieu: Praised British Parliament’s checks of power and influenced America’s checks & balances

• Voltaire/Francois-Marie Arouet: Ideas of religious liberty & judicial reform influenced American gov. after exile by French aristocracy & appreciation of British constitution

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Sovereign obligated to carry population’s General Will & ideas on edu. & raising children

• Deism: Divinity simply set laws in motion without interference (most encouraged church-going as moral guidance)

  • Thomas Paine: Anti-church, but popular b/c inspired American revolutionaries

Colonies became increasingly independent by the 1700s through revolutions focused on self-determination and constitutional representation. Great distance led to colonial legislatures replacing parliaments and differences in culture. Enlightenment philosophy was thus more attractive, as colonies wanted more freedom through a free market instead of European mercantilism.

The Industrial Revolution

Great Britain was able to kickstart the revolution because of their geographic and political advantages.

• Maritime Trade: Rivers + publicly funded canals & harbors = cheap transport → strongest navy & commercial ships = excess capital from trans-Atlantic Slave Trade = entrepreneurs make new business venture

• raw materials: From colonies and inland

  • Coal fueled steam engine and smelting iron

    • Coke: Refined coal = larger iron producing furnaces

  • Iron: Built larger infrastructure = booming industries

    • Cast (strong but brittle) → wrought iron (less strong but more malleable) by Henry Cort 1794

  • Property: ~Only nation legally protected private ownership of property and businesses

    • Enclosure movement: Kicked out farmers who worked on “the commons” (others’ estates) & forced them to work in cities like Manchester and Liverpool

During the second agricultural revolution in the early 1700s, crop rotation (rotating different crops in and out of a yield each year) and the seed drill (a device that quickly placed seeds in a designated spot in the ground) reduced the time and energy to grow crops and thus produced higher yields. With more caloric food, in addition to improved medical care increasing life expectancy, populations grew, reducing the agricultural workforce and increasing the market for manufactured goods.

Most lived in rural areas and produced their own food and clothes. However, after the commercial revolution, demand for domestic wool and flax was being outweighed by Indian cotton, which was produced faster and bulkier. So, to compete, England had cottage industries, a practice where merchants provided raw materials to community processors. Women spun cotton imported from America in their homes with great effort and low pay but some independence. This slow process sparked new technology to increase output:

• Spinning Jenny: Inv. by James Hargreaves 1760s; spin more than one thread at once

• Water Frame: Inv. by Richard Arkwright 1769; Waterpower for spinning jenny

• Interchangeable Parts: Inv. by Eli Whitney for US firearms; particular components easily replaceable by identical part

  • Division of Labor: Manufacturing process is broken into multiple components

  • Specialization of Labor: Each worker focuses on one type of unskilled task

    • Assembly Line: Inv. by Henry Ford early 1900s; Conveyer belt moved components to the next worker

• Steam Engine: Inv. by James Watt 1765; Cheaper coal harness to power machines thru steam & more mobile than streams

  • Steamship: 1800s; Generator turned on & off + travel upstream quickly w/o towing/animals = less wind dependent

    • Coaling Station: Maritime refueling points

The steam engine was too bulky to be put in homes and thus labor moved to factories. Thus, the Industrial Revolution, the rapid shift from agrarian to factory-manufacturing economies in late 1700s - early 1800s Britain, began.

The Congress of Vienna settled the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, which spurred many European countries to fight for independence from French occupations. Additionally, Crop prices increased in European global trade while falling in other regions.

Increasing urbanization + industrialization = increased poverty in slums w/o proper sanitation & political representation

Conservatism: Belief in traditional institutions & practical experience over ideological theories (ruling class blamed poor to change)

Socialism: system of public or direct worker ownership of means of production

• Utopian Socialists: Felt ideal communities could progress society

  • Henri de Saint-Simon: Scientists & engineers work tgt. for useful, productive, & beautiful work places that provide employment

  • Charles Fourier: Encourage passions + harmonious communities over class struggle = work more enjoyable & less tiring

  • Robert Owen: British, Est. intentional communities (small utopian socialist societies) in New Lanark, Scotland & New Harmony, India w/ edu. for working children, & communal ownership of property, policies, & leisure

• Fabian Society: Gradual socialists that favored reforms thru parliament

Classical Liberalism: ~Upper-middle scholars who believed in natural rights, constitution, laissez-faire, & reduced army & est. church spending

• British Parliament: Should change to represent changing populations equally, broadened male suffrage

Feminism: Women’s right & equality based on Enlightenment ideas

• Olympe de Gouges: Mentioned lack of address for women’s suffrage in French Revolution

• Mary Wollstonecraft: Women should receive equal edu. to support themselves

  • England legalized women’s suffrage in 1928

• Seneca Falls Convention: 1848 New Yorkers (Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott) advocate women’s right to vote, hold office, property, income, & be legal guardians

Abolitionism: the Movement to end slavery; Atlantic Slave Trade ended in Denmark (1803), England (1807) & US (1808) before slavery w/ Brazil as last American country to end slavery (1888)

• Serfdom: Peasant revolts as agrarian → industrial society; Elizabeth I ends in Britian (1574), France (1789), Alexander II of Russia (1861) w/ largest emancipation of 23M

The second industrial revolution from the late 1800s- early 1900s involved American, British, and German innovations in

• Steel: Bessemer process 1856 (blasting air onto molten metal removed impurities & kept it from solidifying) = alloy of iron & carbon

• Oil: 1847 technique extracted kerosene for lighting & heaters

  • Precision Machinery & Internal Combustion Engine

    • Automobiles: Early 1900s; Gasoline > kerosene

• Electricity: 1882 London 1st public power station → street lighting & electric street trains

  • Telephone: patented by Alexander Graham Bell 1876; transmitted sound thru electricity

    • Thomas Edison: 1886 refined voice transmitter

  • Radio: Dev. from Italian physicist Gugliemo Marconi’s 1901 experiments on sending radio signals across Atlantic; popular mass media

• Chemicals

Mass transportation and communication established more inland communities and connected farmers, manufacturers, customers, etc. This increased demand and desire for capital led to colonies protecting resources and markets.

Sole proprietorships (single-owned business) and partnership (small-group-owners) were too risky. The revolution created new business models based on Adam Smith’s capitalistic views that accumulated an unprecedented amount of wealth:

• Corporations: Gov. chartered businesses as a legal entity owned by stockholders

  • Stockholders: Individuals buy partial ownership directly from company or later thru stock market to receive money (dividends) w/ limited liability

  • Voting rights easily transferred b/w investors

  • Can sure/be sued, make contracts, hold property

  • May live beyond establishers

  • Transnational companies: Operate across national boundaries

• Monopoly: Control of specific business and removal of all competition (ex. German Alfred Krupp & Bessemer process, American John D. Rockefeller & oil)

• Insurance: Deposit & borrow money (to build factories & hire workers)

When the working and middle class gained disposable income, living standards rose and consumerism led to increased demand and therefore more production and advertising.

• Bicycling & Boating: late 1800s

• Sports: companies encouraged to teach workers self-discipline & following rules

  • Europe: Soccer (types of rugby among lower class) & Golf/Tennis (high class)

  • US: Baseball

• Public parks, Music halls: 1850s; Accessible to all classes- hoped to influence lower class to be more “civilized”

Reactions to Industrialization

Dangerous and unsanitary conditions led to the need for reforms in Britain:

• Labor Unions: Org. by workers to contract bargained agreements w/ employers

  • Won minimum wage, hours worked, overtime pay, 5-day work week

  • More accepted by 1900s

• More political representation in cities

  • Reduced property ownership requirements 1832, 1867, 1884

  • All men’s franchise 1918

  • Women’s franchise 1928

• Child Labor: 1843 coal miners 10+ yrs old

  • 1881 mandatory edu. 5-10 yrs old

• Utilitarianism: pop. by John Stuart Mill 1800s; greatest good for greater # ppl > set moral guidelines & improve capitalism > socialism

• Communist Manifesto: 1848 pamphlet by Germans Karl Marx (& Friedrich Engels) that critiqued capitalism’s large profitability but poverty → two basic classes

  • Market competition drove Bourgeoisie (middle & upper class owners) to exploit proletariat (low class producers) for profit, so proletariat should control production for equal wealth distribution

  • Capitalism → Socialism → Communism (no classes)

Japan

Industrial Revolution

Japan was the first Asian country to industrialize. In the 1850s, they adopted European tech and institutions to protect its traditional culture, rising as a world power by the 1860s.

Some European traders wanted to sell and refuel in Japan, but Commodore Matthew Perry broke Japan’s isolation in 1854 when multiple US warships forced them to open trade. China’s defeat in the Opium Wars led to Japan overthrowing the shogun and restoring power to the emperor in the 1868 Meiji Restoration. Reformers studied and invited Westerners to establish:

• A constitutional monarchy that abolished feudalism under Charter Oath and cruel punishments.

• The military and new navy established conscription and a new school system expanded (technical) opportunities and literacy

• Railroads, roads, tea, silk, weaponry, shipbuilding, and sake became key industries.

• End of samurai class

• Free Press

• Labor Unions

through a high agricultural tax that rapidly grew industrialization and paid bureaucracy. Industries sold to zaibatsu (powerful family businesses) spurred innovations like the 1906 automatic loom by Toyoda Loom Works (Toyota) However, like the West, factories led to the exploitation of female mill workers.

Russia

While serfdom improved in Western Europe, serfs became significantly more oppressed in tsarist Russia from the 1300s-1400s. After Peter the Great’s reign ended, wars made the central government weak and boyars/feudal landlords stronger, increasing punishments, demand for grain, taxes, and control of movement (townspeople couldn’t move businesses). Mirs were village communes that controlled small landholders and peasants.

In response, serfs ran away and became cossacks (runaway serfs and skilled fighters from the Black Sea’s steppes influenced by Mongol descendants), though some were hired to expand Russia. One of the most notable cossacks was Yemelyan Pugachev, who launched the 1774 Pugachev Rebellion against Catherine the Great with peasants, cossacks, and ethnic minorities because she made boyars more powerful in exchange for loyalty. He was killed within a year and Catherine increased oppression.

Industrial Revolution

Russia mainly focused on railroads and exports. so coal and iron industries and the fourth largest steel industry began developing around the 1890s. By 1900, the Trans-Siberian Railroad connected commercial and industrial areas from Moscow to the Pacific with 36,000 miles of railroads, creating easier transport with Japan and China. However, the economy remained overwhelmingly agricultural until after communists seized power in 1917.

Portugal

Portugal, surrounded by the Spanish Castile and Aragon Kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, could only expand their influence overseas with trading post empires (control of small outposts rather than large territories). Like the rest of Europe, they wanted to create a monopoly on the Indian Ocean spice trade, but they also wanted to find Prestor John (mythical Christian King from Africa). This goal was attempted by Portuguese merchants who, for only a short period of time, successfully sold cartazes (trade permits to Portuguese coastal cities) through extortion.

Africa, India, and Southeast Asia

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) was the first monarch to sponsor sea travel, specifically in Africa for its gold and slave trade. This replaced the overland slave trade. After Prince Henry’s reign, Bartholomew Diaz briefly sailed to the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. However, in 1498, Vasco de Gama was the first to sail around West Africa into the Indian Ocean, and he began to establish Portuguese territory and ports by defeating Kilwa and Mombasa forces with superior naval technology. Portuguese India (1509-1515) would defeat Arab soldiers with a Turkish-Egyptian-Venetian fleet at the Battle of Diu and be governed by Afonso de Albuquerque. Through a series of wars with Mamluks, Gujarats, and Calicut with Venetians, ports spanned from Hormuz (Persian Gulf) to Goa (West India) and Portuguese Malaccan factories with institutionalized vessel licenses and permits. However, despite their religious and economic zeal, European influence barely changed processes in the Indian Ocean because they still had to pay preestablished Mughal-controlled taxes.

East Asia

The Portuguese were less prominent in East Asia, but were still able to trade after the seizure of Zheng He’s fleets. Following the merchants came the Dominican, Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries, with the Jesuits impressing the scholar Chinese scholar gentry with scientific knowledge. However, little conversions were made and missionaries were banned. In Japan, Catholic missionaries once again followed Portuguese merchants, burning Buddhist shrines. In response, Japan banned Catholicism, most foreign books, and travel, including both the merchants and missionaries.

Decline

Portugal’s influence eventually began to wane as the small country lacked workers and ships. Many merchants worked independently. Corruption among leaders led to the British and Dutch taking political dominance in India and Malacca respectively.

Rise in the Americas

A new wave of colonialism begins in Brazil in 1500.

Africa

Development of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Leaders of African coastal states like the Dahomey, Kongo, and Asante Kingdoms raided and sold surrounding tribes and the lowest members of society (prisoners of war, servants, criminals) to Europeans as slaves. In exchange, these kingdoms obtained firearms. This gave them a military advantage over other tribes. However, it also made them dependent on Europeans who depleted their populations (before the Columbian Exchange brought yams and manioc). Although King Afonso of Kongo traded slaves, he found Europeans capturing elites without his involvement, making the slave trade less controllable. Additionally, more women were left behind as the majority of slaves were men, creating a gender imbalance that increased polygyny (practice of marrying multiple wives).

Middle Passage: Slaves’ journey through the Atlantic Ocean to America

Before departing, enslaved people were placed in pens called barracoons. Their ears were cut off as proof of purchase, Captured African peoples were given little to no food, water, and movement. 10-15% of them died before reaching the Americas. Men placed under deck were forced to dance to curb rebellions. Many feared the Europeans were cannibals and committed suicide, believing their souls would return home.

Triangle Economy:

• Slaves from West Africa → Tobacco, rice, indigo from South Carolina → Clothes & guns from Liverpool, England

• Slaves from West Africa → Sugar & molasses from West Indies → Rum & iron from New York

Spain

Morale from the Reconquista and demand for pepper led to Christopher Columbus’ 1492 expedition to sail westward in search of a new route to India. Instead, he landed in the Bahamas and met the Taino people, slowly developing the Columbian Exchange (eastern and western hemispheres’ exchange of diseases, foods, animals, and people) over centuries. In attempt to find gold and convert the Native people in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) for two decades, they found little value and enslave the Taino people to Spain.

Later, in 1521, Hernan Cortes, with the help of conquered tribes, overthrows the Aztec Empire to establish New Spain and replace Tenochtitlan with Mexico City. Then in 1533, another conquistador named Francisco Pizarro kills the last ruler of the Incan Empire, Atahualpa, completing his conquest in 1572.

Economic Systems

The Spanish began implementing a new system called the encomienda system (encomenderos/landowners coerce Native Americans to extract natural resources for food and shelter). In Zacatecas and Potosi, Spaniards revitalized the Incan mit’a system (mandatory state service for a set period of time) to force Native laborers to work in silver mining centers. They were paid little, initially with basic commodities (crops, animals, clothes) and then gold pesos. Laborers were put in harsh conditions, having to use mercury to split ores. The hacienda system (conquistadors were granted farmland and estates) kept landowners loyal and tobacco plantations profitable.

Political Systems

To govern the colonies, viceroys (administrators of the Spanish crown) and audiencias (royal court of settlers that appealed policies) were established, as slow communication allowed for the Spanish crown to be less politically involved and creoles (Spanish Americans) to want more independence.

Cultural Developments

The new domination of Spaniards completely changed social hierarchies in Central and South America. The casta system divided the colonies based on race: Peninsulares (Spaniards) on top, followed by Criollos (Spanish Americans), the castas (mixed-race peoples) Mestizos (Native and White), Mulattoes (Black and White), and Zambos (Native and Black), and Native Americans and enslaved African people on the bottom. Classes were assigned at baptism. The lower classes were assigned the highest taxes and tribute despite systemic poverty. Intermarriage was a way to move up in society.

This interaction of different cultures led to syncretism (blending of cultures to create a new one). A notable example is Voodoo or Vodun (“spirit” in Fon), which originated in the Dahomey, Yoruba, and Kongo Kingdoms, was a traditional African faith that spread to Haiti and blended with Roman Catholicism. Santeria (“Way of the Saints” in Spanish) spread from an African faith to Cuba and eventually the rest of the Americas. Candomble (“Dance to honor gods” in Bantu) spread from Yoruba, Fon, and Bantu faiths to Brazil. The Virgin of Guadelupe was revered for her ability to perform miracles.

Philippines

Ferdinand Magellan dies in the Philippines on his 1522 government sponsored expedition, but in 1565, his fleet defeats and takes control of the state. Galleons at the newly established capital Manila exchanged silver for luxury goods, attracting Chinese merchants and converts. China began to use silver as a main form of currency.

Creole Revolutions

Many creoles, who were often wealthy business owners, wanted to be freed from Spanish mercantilism and granted more political power as peninsulares were given important government jobs. Additionally, Mestizos wanted political power and wealth as they worked in towns, mines, or estates. Although the Haitian Revolution and Reign of Terror made them fear the rise of lower castas, Simón Bolívar, a liberal creole, abolitionist, and capitalist, promoted independence of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru using his generational wealth for successful military operations and the formation of Gran Colombia.

New states suffered from conservative, upper class creoles and caudillos (local leaders with regional power bases) heavily intervening with politics and ignoring representative forms of governments. Peru denied suffrage to those who couldn’t read or write in Spanish until 1860. Women were still unable to vote, enter contracts, and receive higher education. One exception would be colonel Manuela Saenz, Bolivar’s lover.

Puerto Rico and Cuban Revolutions

In the final colonial holdings of Puerto Rico and Cuba, Poet Lola Rodriguez de Tio held meetings for self-determination at her home with her revolutionary song “La Boriquena.” As uprisings in Puerto Rico began in 1868, she was exiled to Venezuela. She returned in 1885 but was then exiled to Cuba, where she worked for its independence. She was again exiled, this time to New York, but returned to Cuba in 1899 where she remained a campaigner for social justice.

Philippine Revolution

Because Filipinos had limited education, wealthy creole and mestizo men moved to Spanish universities like at Barcelona and Madrid in the 1880s. Enlightenment thought sparked nationalism and republicanism, and Jose Rizal helped kickstart the Propaganda Movement, which advocated for greater autonomy but not revolution, through pamphlets, magazines, and other publications. His arrest in 1892 and execution in 1896 then inspired a military operation, the Philippine Revolution, in 1896.

Spain Context: The Columbian Exchange

The eastern and western hemispheres’ exchange of diseases, foods, animals, and people) over centuries.

East → West

Animals: Mesoamericans initially ate little meat

• Pigs: Reproduced quickly & had diverse diet

• Cow: Beasts of burden for agriculture & cargo b/c llamas are weak

• Horses: Agricultural Plains Native Americans → pastoral nomads hunting bison b/c more wealth (more horses = more power), & time for art & spirituality

• Chickens

• Goats

• Sheep

Crops

• Okra & Rice: Brought by enslaved African people & made into gumbo

• Sugarcane: Grown in Brazil’s vast tropical climate

• Wheat

• Oranges

• Lettuce

• Grapes

Diseases: Spread in conquest + famine (reduced farmers) + leaders’ deaths = Majority of Native American deaths b/c lacked immunity & little contact w/ animals meant little Native diseases

• Smallpox: rats

• Measles

• Typhus

• Bubonic Plague

• Influenza

• Malaria: mosquitoes

Culture: Reinvented social hierarchies

• African Diaspora: All across West & sometimes East Africa as slaves

  • Creoles: Gullah & Geechee in coastal South Carolina & Georgia ; Language barriers = mixed African + European syntax, esp. Caribbean

  • Music: Communication to endure workdays + escape plans + sometimes blending w/ Christianity = Invented banjo = Inspired future gospel + blues + jazz + rock & roll + hip-hop + rap + reggae music

• Technology: Alphabetic writing & firearms

West → East

Crops: Influx of highly caloric foods = Better nutrition & diversity = Overpopulation = Migration to Americas & utilization of unused lands

• Potatoes: Ireland, Southeast & East Asia

• Chilis: India

• Yams & Manioc: Africa

• Corn: Persia

• Tobacco & Cacao: Luxury crops

• Blueberries

• Beans

• Peanuts

• Avocadoes

Animals: More textiles & food

• Turkeys

• Llamas

• Guinea pigs

• Alpacas

Culture

• Rubber: Erasers

• Quinine: Early malaria treatment

Renewed Interest in Exploration

Americas

After Spain found success in the Aztec and Incan Empires through coerced Native and African labor in silver, gold, sugar, and tobacco plantations, other European countries sought to establish colonies and find the Northwest Passage (route from America to Asia).

Europe and Indian Ocean

The widespread usage of silver currency led to the Commercial Revolution (the transformation from regional-scale bartering to global-scale capitalism) where capital (material wealth that can generate more wealth) flowed from entrepreneurs to laborers. This contributed to the growing bourgeoisie (middle class) that was able to consume more luxury goods. High interest became commonplace. However, this also led to the Price Revolution (1500s-1600s inflation in Europe and China due to massive flow of wealth and increased demand). Merchants of the bourgeoisie began investing in joint-stock companies (companies where investors buy stocks to share profits and risks). Limited-liability (principal that investors were not responsible for debts beyond their investment) further protected investors. This encouraged financial bubbles (financial schemes, notably in France and England, that promised return of investment and led to a buying frenzy that jacked up prices across the economy).

Netherlands

Southeast Asia

The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was formed in 1602 ~~~~

Americas

Henry Hudson was sent to America in 1609, successfully claiming the Hudson River on the east coast but also failing to find a Northwest Passage. The port city New Amsterdam on the island of Manhattan became a node for the fur trade and tobacco from Virginia, exporting it to the Netherlands and returning with manufactured goods.

Unilever Corporation, a transnational British and Dutch venture, focused on household goods, especially soap. Plantations in first West Africa and then Belgian Congo grew palm oil. By 1890, Australian, Swiss, American, etc. factories were established.

England

North America

John Cabot was sent in 1497 to find the Northwest Passage. Though unsuccessful, he claimed the east coast of Newfoundland to Chesapeake Bay. Sea dogs (English pirates) also sailed along the American shore. Although much weaker than their neighbors, the English navy was able to destroy 2/3 of the Spanish Armada in 1588. This gave England the much needed morale to expand their territory. In 1607, the first successful English American colony Jamestown (named after King James I) was founded on the James River.

The first slave revolt in the present-day United States was the Gloucester County Rebellion by African slaves and White indentured servants. It was unsuccessful, and the conspirers were arrested.

Metacom’s War or King Philip’s War from 1675-1678 was the last major effort by Native Americans to reclaim New England. The Wampanoag allied with the Nipmuc and Narragansett against the English, who sided with the Pequot and Mohegan. The war ended with Wampanoag persecution.

Jamaica

In 1655, the English overthrew Spanish control in Jamaica. The Maroon Wars would take place from 1728-1740 and 1795-1796 between Maroons (escaped descendants of enslaved African peoples) unified by Queen Nanny (a Maroon woman) and English colonizers.

England

James II was crowned king of England in 1865 and executed anti-Protestant measures. So, his nephew and son-in-law William of Orange and his wife Mary II launched a rebellion and took charge. They began the Glorious Revolution or Bloodless Revolution, which strengthened parliament (autocratic to constitutional monarchy) and ending Catholic rule in England.

India

The Maratha Kingdom (originating from a group of Hindu warriors), through a series of wars from 1680-1707, ended Mughal rule, lasting until 1818. However, in 1763, the defeat of France in the Seven Years’ War led to England’s rise in Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu. The East India Company (joint-stock company), whose territory was limited by the Mughals, took advantage of Muslim and Hindu tensions by allying with sepoys (privately-European-trained Indian forces). They eventually expanded to become the de-facto government of India.

*Industrial Revolution in Context

New Zealand Wars

A Polynesian group called the Maori, who lived in iwis/tribes and sometimes engaged in warfare, inhabited New Zealand since the 1200s before British colonization, starting in 1840, increased pressure and control of affairs on the island. In the New Zealand Wars, the Maori tribes fought together against the British (nationalism), but were defeated in 1872.

1800s transnational company De Beers Diamonds’ founder Cecil Rhodes invested in a railroad project from Cape Town, South Africa to Cairo to aid in governance, war, and extracting resources in colonies. Most of the workers were low-waged natives. It was never completed because of Britain did not control all of the land the railroad went through.

Another transnational company, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Baking Corporation (HSBC) in 1865, focused on investing and global banking.

Unilever Corporation, a transnational British and Dutch venture, focused on household goods, especially soap. Plantations in first West Africa and then Belgian Congo grew palm oil. By 1890, Australian, Swiss, American, etc. factories were established.

France

North America

Also inspired by the Northwest Passage, Jacques Cartier was sponsored to sail to North America in the 1500s-1600s. He claimed Canada as New France and established St. Lawrence. Then, from 1608 (the establishment of the capital Quebec)-1616, Samuel de Champlain organized conversion schools and okay relations with Native Americans in the fur trade, which made him deem the northwest passage less necessary. Because the French rarely settled permanently, their colonies grew slowly as La Salle colonized all of the land east of the Mississippi River.

In 1701, the Iroquois and French sign the Great Peace of Montreal to end decades of fighting after the Iroquois’ former allies, the British, attempted to aggregate further conflict in hopes of obtaining more land. However, in 1763 of the Seven Years’ War, the French were driven out of Canada.

France

When Louis XIV was crowned in 1643 at the age of four, Mother Anne and chief minister Cardinal Jules Mazarin took his place before he reached adulthood. During this time, Mazarin increased taxes for recent wars, with nobles and judicial Parlements pushing the burden on the bourgeoisie. Mobs began to destroy government officers’ property in the Fronde Rebellion. Because France was busy fighting Spain, they signed the Peace Parlement, with Mazarin mass arresting leaders and fleeing. This made Louis XIV distrust the nobility, pushing harder to sustain an autocratic kingdom. Stability returned to France in 1653.

French Revolution

In the 1780s, the slogan liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity) was popularized by philosophes as France struggled economically from financing a series of wars like the American Revolution. Additionally, inequality in voting in the Estates-General (council of representatives of the three estates, clergy, nobility, and commonwealth, that aided king) led to commoners breaking away and forming the National Assembly. The National Assembly, including Marquis de Lafayette, first attempted to establish a constitutional monarchy at meetings in Paris. However, on July 14, 1789 (French Independence Day) when the King threatened to arrest leaders, multiple riots across France arose. A crowd stormed the Bastille (a former prison that symbolizes the corrupt French monarchy and aristocracy), and countryside peasants burned manor houses. Some officials fled and the King was forced to accept the National Assembly as their new government. They established the Declaration of the Rights of Man and abolished feudalism. When Louis XVI and the nobility refused to accept the new government, the Reign of Terror began, executing thousands of opponents of the revolution like the King and Queen. Napoleon Bonaparte then became emperor of France in 1804.

Haitian Revolution

On the rich French sugar and coffee colony on St. Domingue/Hispaniola, enslaved African people began killing their masters and burning their homes, and they were quickly joined by Maroons. Toussaint L’Ouverture, a former slave who joined the revolts in 1791, led the revolution with Enlightenment thought and pitting the French, Spanish, and British against each other. Haiti gained independence in 1801, becoming the first independent country in Latin America, first Black-led country in the western hemisphere, and the only permanent country that resulted from a slave revolt. L’Ouverture, who became governor for life, established a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents and equally distributed plantations to Black citizens. He initially worked with France but was betrayed and imprisoned, dying in France in 1803.

Industrial Revolution

France industrialized late because of sparsely populated urban centers and the draining capital caused by subsequent wars.

United States of America

American Revolution

On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence quoted John Locke’s “unalienable rights”: life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. Colonists defeat Great Britain in 1783 with Britain’s long-term enemy France.

Industrial Revolution

The US industrialized in 1800s and became a leading industrial force by 1900. Political upheaval and widespread poverty brought European and East Asian immigrants, as well as rural migrants, and significantly increased human capital (workforce).

The Transcontinental Railroad (1869) connected the Pacific and Atlantic transported timber, coal, iron, and oil) efficiently and facilitated growth.

In 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt settles Russo-Japanese War with Treaty of Portsmouth and protects China from Japanese encroachment.

Italy

Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Count di Cavour, used classical liberalism and realpolitik, or practical politics of reality (manipulation), to unite the Italian Peninsula under the native House of Savoy dynasty. In 1858, he encouraged Napoleon III to weaken Austrian influence, but backed out after two successful battles because the Pope didn’t want his papal states under a central Italian government.

Finally, many areas voted by plebiscite/popular referendum to join Piedmont. Cavour continued by using philosophy of Giuseppe Mazzini, an agitator of Risorgimento/Italian resurgence, and allying with Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Red Shirts military in the southern Kingdom of Naples.

The constitution of 1853 encouraged impoverished Italians, more in the south, to immigrate, particularly in the United States and Argentina.

Germany

Independence

The Congress of Vienna settled the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, which spurred many European countries to fight for independence from French occupations.

Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck won two wars by manipulating Austria into Prussia against Denmark (1864) and Prussia and Austria/Seven Weeks’ War (1866). Then, his armies beat France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). A new Germany was established in 1871 with the territory gained from each war, including Alsace-Lorraine on the French-Germany border.

By 1871, Italy and Germany’s alliance would perpetuate extreme nationalism and lead to WWI.

Industrial Revolution

Despite fragmentation delaying industrialization, Germany quickly became the leading coal producer after its independence.

Balkans

The Ottoman Empire had dominance in southeastern Europe and had controlled Greece for over 350 years until 1800. However, their 1683 failed capture of Vienna brought successful Austrian and Russian operations with Western European interaction.

Greece

Exposure to Western Europe’s enlightenment and their reverence for ancient Greek culture sparked Greek nationalism and a semi-successful civil war against the Ottomans. However, the help of a British, French, and Russian fleet secured Greek independence in 1827.

Waning Ottoman influence increased freedom in Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria.