FINAL - Theories of Learning

What is interleaving, and how does it enhance learning?

Interleaving is studying different topics or problem types in a mixed order. It enhances learning by improving the ability to discriminate between concepts and strengthens memory retrieval.

What is spacing, and why is it effective?

Spacing involves spreading learning over time. It leverages the spacing effect, which improves long-term retention by allowing forgetting and relearning cycles.

What is retrieval practice, and how does it benefit memory?

Retrieval practice involves actively recalling information rather than just reviewing it. It strengthens memory traces and improves long-term retention.

How do these strategies relate to the information processing model?

They enhance encoding, consolidation, and retrieval stages of memory, which are central to the information processing model.

What is the information processing model?

Perception → Attention → Processing → Working Memory → Long-Term Memory.

What does it mean to connect information in the brain?

Building associations between concepts to enhance understanding and recall.

When are interleaving, spacing, and retrieval most appropriate?

When the goal is long-term learning and transfer of knowledge across contexts, especially with complex or confusing material.

Why is focusing on cognitive processes more beneficial than blindly applying evidence-based strategies?

Because strategies may not work equally for all learners or contexts; understanding the cognitive goal helps adapt strategies effectively.

What learner and situational characteristics should be considered when applying learning strategies?

Prior knowledge, motivation, cognitive load capacity, and the complexity of the learning environment.

What is Willingham’s main claim about the mind and thinking?

The mind is not designed for deep thinking; it prefers efficiency and relies on memory and habits.

Under what conditions does Willingham say thinking becomes enjoyable?

When it’s successful—challenging but solvable problems that result in insight or understanding.

How does Willingham’s argument apply to the school system?

Many educational tasks are too easy or too hard, which leads to boredom or frustration, undermining motivation to think.

What is cognitive load?

The amount of mental effort used in working memory at a given time.

How is cognitive load related to working and long-term memory?

Working memory has limited capacity; excessive load can hinder transfer to long-term memory.

What is metacognition?

Awareness and regulation of one's own learning and thinking processes.

What is a growth mindset?

The belief that intelligence and abilities can develop through effort and learning.

What role do gestures play in communication?

Gestures complement speech by conveying meaning, supporting understanding, and reinforcing cognitive processes.

How do gestures relate to cognitive load?

Gestures offload mental effort, freeing up working memory to aid problem-solving and explanation.

What do gesture-speech mismatches signal in learners?

They indicate cognitive readiness to learn; the learner may know more than they can verbalize.

How can teachers use gesture-speech mismatches in instruction?

Teachers can identify learning opportunities and adjust instruction to support deeper understanding.

What was found in 10-2 about observational learning and model variety?

Performance improved with more observation, even if some models were less skilled—variety can enhance learning.

What is the ghost condition in observational learning?

An experimental setup where an action is demonstrated without a visible model—used to test asocial learning.

What is a general idea from 10-3 to 10-5?

Observational learning involves more than copying; attention, retention, and motivation are critical.

What are general insights from 10-6?

Observational learning is shaped by context, model characteristics, and learner goals.

How can small social-psychological interventions lead to big changes?

They alter self-beliefs or social perceptions, creating recursive cycles that reinforce positive behavior.

What is a recursive process in learning?

A feedback loop where an initial positive change reinforces itself over time (e.g., believing you belong → increased effort → better outcomes → stronger belief).

Give an example of a recursive cycle that supports learning.

A student feels like they belong in class → they participate more → they perform better → they feel more confident → they continue engaging.

What are key discrepancies between traditional and modern learning practices?

Traditional: centralized, curriculum-focused, teacher-led. Modern: learner-centered, technology-integrated, personalized.

What does “Three Eras” refer to in educational history?

Apprenticeship (learning by doing), Universal Schooling (formal education), and Lifelong Learning (flexible, tech-based learning).

What changes in education are emphasized by Collins & Halverson?

Shifts in learning venue (school vs. online), responsibility (teacher vs. learner), and tools (textbooks vs. technology).

What is learning?

A change in long-term memory.

What is the testing effect?

Improved retention due to active retrieval, not just repeated exposure.

Why is testing better than rereading?

Testing reduces overconfidence and engages effortful retrieval.

What is spaced repetition?

Studying material at intervals to align with the forgetting curve for better retention.

Why is thinking effortful and unreliable?

It requires cognitive resources and is prone to biases.

What affects attention and memory encoding?

The structure of practice and relevance of information.

Why should study methods match future use?

To support transfer and application in real-world or test situations.

What is cognitive psychology?

The study of how people perceive, think, remember, and solve problems.

Key areas of cognitive psych?

Memory, attention, problem solving, decision making, emotion, spatial skills, imagery.

Blocking vs. Interleaving example:

Multiplication → blocking (focus on similarities); Division → interleaving (focus on differences).

Difference between lab and classroom learning:

Lab: Controlled, fewer distractions.
Classroom: Noisy, complex, emotionally/socially influenced.

What factors should be considered in instruction?

Student’s prior knowledge, difficulty of content, and intended learning goals.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others.

What is social vs. asocial observational learning?

Social: model present; Asocial: no model present.

What is imitation?

Copying behavior to reach a goal.

What is overimitation?

Copying unnecessary actions.

What is emulation?

Copying the end goal, not the exact steps.

What is response facilitation?

Increased behavior after seeing a model rewarded.

What is response inhibition?

Reduced behavior after seeing a model punished.

What is response disinhibition?

Increased behavior after seeing a model not punished.

What is the chameleon effect?

Unconscious mimicry of others’ behaviors and gestures.

What are vicarious consequences?

Learning from observing others’ outcomes.

What are the core SCT processes?

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

What is self-efficacy?

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

What is reciprocal determinism?

Person, environment, and behavior all influence each other.

What is personal agency?

The ability to control one's actions and influence outcomes.

Do animals have number sense?

Some animals can distinguish between small vs. large quantities, or many vs. few.

What is preferential looking in infants?

Infants stare longer at surprising outcomes (e.g., 1 + 1 = 1).

What does ratio-dependent brain activation suggest?

Quantity is represented in the brain, and greater changes cause more activity.

What improves performance after academic setbacks?

Believing intelligence is malleable and setbacks are unstable.

How can stereotype threat be reduced?

By affirming core values and promoting a growth mindset.

What are purposes of schools?

Civic, cultural, and social participation, not just academics.

What is edutainment?

Educational content presented in an entertaining format.

What is human cultural transmission?

The accumulation and improvement of ideas over time.