Human Food Evolution: From Hunter-Gatherers to Modern Food Science

What are the three stages of the food timeline?

Hunter-Gatherer (<8000 BC), Agricultural Revolution (8000 BC-~1800 AD), Industrial Revolution (~1800 AD-Present)

What are the characteristics of Hunter-Gatherer societies?

Nomadic, foraging/scavenging, no food storage, local diets, primitive tools, mostly plant-based

What allowed humans to evolve beyond other species?

Fire, cooking, communication

How did cooking affect human evolution?

Smaller teeth and guts, increased energy availability, larger brains

What was the main goal of the Agricultural & Industrial Revolutions?

Create a stable food supply

What are the key features of the Agricultural Revolution?

Domestication of animals, crop cultivation, permanent settlements, food preservation

What are the disadvantages of the Agricultural Revolution?

Land fertility loss, waste issues, spread of infectious diseases

What are the key features of the Industrial Revolution?

Urbanization, railroads, refrigeration, penicillin, food science

Which discovery caused a population boom?

Penicillin

What does food physiologically provide?

Energy, nutrients, satiety

What are the macronutrients?

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats/lipids

What are the micronutrients?

Vitamins and minerals

What is food chemically mostly composed of?

Water, macromolecules, vitamins/minerals, pigments, flavor compounds

What does food culturally represent?

Heritage, religion, status, values, celebrations

What is the Western food-health belief system?

Humoral Theory (four humors affect temperament)

What is the Eastern food-health belief system?

Yin & Yang balance

What are Yin foods?

Cool, dark, fruits, leafy vegetables

What are Yang foods?

Warm, dry, meats, spices, root vegetables

What does Kosher mean?

Proper/acceptable to eat (Judaism)

What are the key Kosher rules?

No pork/shellfish, no blood, dairy & meat separated, specific slaughter

What does Halal mean?

Lawful (Islam)

What are the key Halal rules?

No pork, no alcohol, no blood, meat must be blessed

What does Orthodox Christian fasting exclude?

Meat, fish with backbone, dairy, eggs, oils, wine (during fasts)

What are the ideal food qualities?

Nutritious, safe, appealing, affordable, appropriate

What is a calorie?

Unit of energy

What are the calorie values per gram for Carbs, Protein, Fat, and Alcohol?

Carbs 4, Protein 4, Fat 9, Alcohol 7

What is the average daily recommended calorie intake?

~2000 kcal

Does fiber provide calories?

No (not digestible)

What does saccharide mean?

Sugar

What are carbohydrates composed of?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CHO)

What are examples of simple carbohydrates?

Glucose, fructose, galactose; sucrose, lactose, maltose

What are examples of complex carbohydrates?

Starch, oligosaccharides

What is retrogradation?

Starch realignment that expels water and causes staling

Which starch resists staling more?

Amylopectin (waxy starch)

What are examples of starchy foods?

Grains, tubers

What is enzymatic browning?

Oxidation (cut apples)

What is caramelization?

Heat + sugar

What is the Maillard reaction?

Amino acids + reducing sugars (bread, steak)

What is the function of lipids?

Energy storage, insulation, hormones, protection

What are the four types of lipids?

Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, waxes

What are triglycerides made of?

3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol

What is the structure of a phospholipid?

Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tails

What do steroids include?

Cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen

What is the function of wax?

Protection, water repellence

What are the healthiest fats?

Unsaturated fats

What are the least healthy fats?

Trans fats

Where is HDL cholesterol found?

Olive oil, nuts, avocados, fish

What are the building blocks of proteins?

Amino acids

How many amino acids are there?

20

Which part of the amino acid determines its function?

R group

What bond holds the primary structure of proteins?

Peptide bond

What stabilizes the secondary structure of proteins?

Hydrogen bonds

What stabilizes the tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins?

Disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, salt bridges

What does denaturation mean?

Loss of secondary/tertiary structure (not primary)

What are examples of denaturation?

Heating eggs, acid (ceviche), whipping egg whites

What are the gluten proteins?

Gliadin & glutenin

What does gliadin provide?

Extensibility

What does glutenin provide?

Elasticity & strength

What are alternative protein sources?

Soy, insects, blood

What is the difference between fruit and vegetable botanically?

Fruit = ripened ovary with seeds; vegetables = other plant parts

What is the main composition of fruits & vegetables?

Water and carbohydrates

Fruits are generally higher in what?

Carbohydrates

What is a water-soluble vitamin?

Vitamin C

What are fat-soluble vitamins?

A, E, K

What are carotenoids?

Pigments and antioxidants

What gives asparagus its odor?

Mercaptans (sulfur compounds)

What are the pericarp layers?

Exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp

What are the types of fruit?

Berry (fleshy), Drupe (hard pit), Pome (apple), Nut (hard), Legume (splits), Pepo (thick rind), Hesperidium (citrus)