AP PSYCH UNIT 9 - Social Psychology

Social Psychology

Branch of psych that is concerned w/ the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, & behavior are influenced __by others__.

Attitude

The positive or negative __evaluation__ of social issues, institutions, products, people. etc.

Affective Component

Emotional feelings

Prejudice

a __preconceived judgement__ or __emotional feelings__ towards certain people based on their membership in a particular group.

Behavioral Component

Predisposition to __act__ (or not act) in certain ways.

Discrimination

the __unjust treatment__ toward a person based on what particular group they belong in.

Cognitive Component

Beliefs

Stereotypes

an __overgeneralized belief__ about a particular group or person.

Explicit Attitudes

Attitudes that we hold consciously & can readily describe.

Implicit Attitudes

Convert attitudes that are expressed in subtle automatic responses that people have little conscious control over.

Reference Groups

A group that __we compare ourselves to__ when evaluating our behavior.

Relative Deprivation

perception by a person that the amt. of the desired resource (ex: money, social status) he/she has is __less than comparison to ppl in their reference group__

\*Leads to feeling entitled or inferior.

Downward social comparison

When ppl __compare themselves to those who are less proficient__ than they are.

\*to make themselves feel better.

Spotlight effect

__overestimating others’ noticing__ & evaluating our appearance, performance & bunders.

\*As if we presume a spotlight shines on us.

False consensus effect

__Overestimating__ how much other ppl __share our beliefs & behaviors__.

Self-Perception Theory (Bem)

People develop their attitudes by __observing their own behavior__ & __then concluding__ what attitudes must have caused it.

Effects of physical appearance (on person perception)

Attractive people command more attention, are assumed to have desirable personality characteristics & viewed as more competent…why?

Halo Effect

When a general (pos.) impression of a person in one area influences the impressions formed of that person in other areas.

*ex: characteristics/abilities*

Illusory Correlation

People estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have seen. (i.e. think there is a correlation when there really is none).

Outgroup homogeneity effect

The tendency is to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same”, whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogenous or varies.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Own beliefs lead you to act in ways that fulfill your expectations.

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to view one’s own culture as superior & apply one’s own cultural values when judging the behavior & beliefs of people raised in other cultures.

Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel)

A person’s sense of who they are & evaluation of themself is based on their group memberships.

Ingroup v. Outgroup

\*Ingroup: a group one belongs to & identifies with.

\*Outgroup: a person one doesn’t belong to or identify with.

Ingroup Bias & Outgroup Bias

Ingroup Bias: Tendency for humans to be __more helpful & positive__ towards members of their own group over members of an out-group.

Outgroup Bias: Negative categorizations, feelings, or ideas about people who are not part of our ingroup.

Effects of Categorization

Categorization can lead to prejudice & discrimination.

Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

Mental discomfort is experienced by a person who holds 2 or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. 

OR when our Affect, Behavior, &/or Cognitions aren’t congruent… This dissonance drives us to change either one of our beliefs &/or our behavior so that they realign.

*ex~ If you are talking to the same girl as your friend, you might feel bad, but to combat this discomfort, you tell yourself that you are the only one talking to that girl, so it is okay.*

Yale Attitude Change Approach

The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in responses to persuasive messages.

Persuasion

A process where a person, brand, or other factors influence another person’s behavior or attitudes.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

(1) Central Route to Persuasion

(2) Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Central Route to Persuasion

When attitudes are formed or changed as a result of carefully scrutinizing & thinking about the central merits of attitude-relevant info.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

__Persuasion__ depends on __non-message factors__ such as the __attractiveness or credibility__ of the source, or emotionally conditioned response.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Getting a person to agree to a large request by 1st having them agree to a small request (setting them up).

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*ex~ making your roommate get you a bottle of water from the fridge 1st, then say “While you have the fridge door open, can you make me a sandwich.”*

Door-in-the-face Technique

Making a large request of someone, that they will most likely turn down, so they are more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request.

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*ex~ a game ticket costs $ so you 1st ask your parents for $300,  they obviously say no, then you say if you borrow $200, they are more likely to say yes.*

Lowballing

Gain agreement & then later on the agreement is made less desirable (by revealing hidden costs or requirements)

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FQ tip: multi-step response; must indicate intent.

Norm of Reciprocity

The “rule” is that we should pay back (reciprocate) what we receive from others.

Contract Hypothesis

The idea is that bringing people together who are in conflict will help the conflict to subside as they get to know & understand each other.

**must be done carefully.*

Superordinate goals & Conflict resolution

Tasks that get people from opposing sides to come together & work toward a common end result (can’t succeed w/o all members contributing).

Attributions

*Trying to answer the question “Why?”*

Inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior.

Internal Attributions

Believe the causes of behavior are due to __dispositional factors__ (internal traits) (e.g. intelligence, personality, abilities, feelings, traits) **these can be un/stable.*

External Attributions

Believe the causes of behavior are due to situational demands & environmental constraints (external factors).

Actor-Observer Bias (AOB)

Neg. behaviors: me (actor) = external you (observer) = internal.

Pos. behaviors: me (actor) =internal, you (observer) = external

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*ex~ You and a classmate don’t do well on a test.  You attribute your own poor performance to not having enough time to prepare because of having to work late or bc the teacher didn’t prepare you well enough, whereas you attribute your classmate’s poor performance to him/her not being that smart.*

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

*ONLY FOCUSING ON* __*OTHERS*__ 

Neg. behaviors of others = internal

Pos. behaviors of others = external

Self-Serving Bias

*ONLY FOCUSING ON* __*YOURSELF*__

Own neg. behavior = external

Own pos. behavior = internal

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*ex~  a tennis player wins a match and attributes her success to the hard work she has put in at practice and her natural talent; when she loses the next match, she attributes the loss to the weather conditions or some bad calls made by the line judge.*

Scapegoat Theory

The theory is that prejudice offers an outlet for anger & other neg. emotions by providing __someone (or a group) to blame__ *(that is usually not at fault).*

Defense Attribution & Just-World Hypothesis

Tendency to __balance victims__ for their __misfortune__ so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way (“__just-world hypothesis__”).

Social Loafing

Exerting __less effort__ when working on a task __in groups__ than working alone (due to diffusion of resp.).

Social facilitation

__Presence of others = improves__ one’s performance.

Social impairment

__Presence of others = hinders__ one’s performance.

Group Polarization

The tendency for groups to make __more extreme decisions__ than the initial inclination of each individual member.

Groupthink

When the __desire for harmony__ or conformity within a group leads to dysfunctional or __irrational decision-making.__

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**Best to have a “devil’s advocate” to reduce this tendency**

Group Cohesiveness

When __bonds link members__ of a social __group__ to one another and the group as a __whole__ (perceived __unity__, task __relations__, & emotional influence).

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**Think about your own group of friends, teammates, bandmates, etc.*

Social Roles

A pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group.

The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo) *(brief decs.)*

Only lasted 6 days; supposed to be 2 wks.

Supports the influence of social roles & power of the situation.

Social Dilemma

a situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses. *(aka social trap).*

Prisoner Dilemma

**cooperation v. Competition**

********Best option is always to cooperate.***

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone.

*ex ~ Kitty Genovese case*

Diffusion of responsibilty

When others are present, a person is less likely to feel obligated to take responsibility.

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**they assume others are responsible for taking action or have already done so.*

Deindivisualization

The __loss of self-awareness/personal identity__ when in groups due to a __perceived lack of accountability__.

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*FRQ TIP (copied from AP scoring rubric): [The response must indicate that the explanation of the behavior is]….. that the presence of other people diminishes one’s sense of self-awareness OR increases feelings of anonymity OR diminishes one’s sense of individual responsibility or inhibition*

Helping behavior/Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Aggression

Any form of behavior that is intended to harm or injure another person.

\*AP EXAM concept: frustration-aggression hypothesis states that we act more aggressively when frustrated (I’ve definitely seen that happen in real life!)

Factors that Influence Helping & Aggression

**1)** Situational influences (ex: time pressure, # of people present)

**2)** Dispositional/Personal Influences (ex: personality traits)

**3)** Interpersonal Influences (ex: the norm of reciprocity)

**4)** Sociocultural Influences (ex: norms/expectations, religious beliefs)

Conformity

When people __change their behavior__ due to real or imagined __social pressure__ (explicit or implicit).

Social Norms

The perceived __informal__, mostly __unwritten__, __rules__ that d__efine acceptable & appropriate actions__, within a given group or community, thus guiding human behavior.

*ex ~ saying bless you when someone sneezes.*

Asch’s Conformity Study

* Asked which line matches the original line (left).


* Each announces a choice to the group; all but one is an accomplice of the experimenter.
* Accomplices give incorrect answers during multiple trials.
* 37% conformity (on majority of the trials); 75% conformed at least once.

*What factors influenced conformity?*

Group size & group unanimity.

Normative Influence

When people __conform__ to social norms for __fear of negative social consequences__ (want to fit in).

Informational Influence

When people __conform__ to __ambiguous situation__s (bc they are __unsure what do to__).

Public Conformity

__Conform__ to fit in __but__ do __not change beliefs__.

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*ex ~ laughing at a joke bc others were laughing, but you didn’t think it was funny.*

Private Conformity

When __someone’s belief is diff__. than others, they __question__ if their beliefs are __wrong__.

Obedience

Form of compliance that occurs when people follow __direct commands__, usually from someone in a (real or imagined) __position of authority__.

Stanley Milgram’s Shock Experiment

**Summary**: NO shocks were actually given; Participants were told that the study was about the impact of punishment on learning; Notice how the shock generator is set up; Script for “learner” to express distress.

**Findings:** of 40 participants, only 5 quit at 300 volts; only 14 participants defied the experimenter before the full series of shocks was completed; 65% gave all 30 levels of shock.

Ethical concerns of Stanley Milgram’s Shock Experiment

deception, trauma, didn’t allow participants to withdraw, etc.

Factors that influence Obedience

Seem to transcend culture; however, collectivist cultures encourage more conformity.

Mere Exposure Effect

The finding is that __repeated exposure__ to a stimulus promotes __greater liking__ of the stimulus (no cognition).

The Matching Hypothesis

Males & females of approx. __equal physical attractiveness__ are likely to select each other as partners.

Similarity

*(Do' “birds of a feather flock together” OR do “opposites attract?”)*

Tendency to be attracted to those who have common interests & beliefs (__more similar)__

Proximity

Tendency for individuals to form __interpersonal relationships__ w/ those who are __close by__.

__Sternberg’s__ Triangular Theory of Love (4)

1. Components of Love
2. Types of Love
3. Culture & Close Relationships
4. An Evolutionary Perspective on Relationships

Components of Love

\*Intimacy (friendship)

\*Passion (sexual attraction)

\*Commitment (psychological loyalty)

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**Various combinations of 3 factors produce different types of love*

Types of Love

\*Consummate Love: passion + intimacy + commitment

\*Companionate Love: intimacy + commitment (no passion)

\*Romantic Love: passion + intimacy (no commitment)

Culture & Close Relationships

*Romantic love is not found in all cultures.*

\*Individualism: marriage for love, “passionate love”

Collectivism: arranged marriages

An Evolutionary Perspective on Relationships

\*Physical attraction = influential determinant of attraction

\*Men seek youthfulness & physical attractiveness (to pass on their genes)

\*Women seek ambition, social status, & financial potential (for protection)