Bio Lecture 1 (4/4)

What are the characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

These cells do not contain a nucleus. None of its structures are membrane bound. Genetic information is stored in the nucleoid, which lies in the cytoplasm. Contains structures such as the pilus, flagella, ribosomes, cell wall, and plasma membrane.

What are characteristics of the Eukaryotes?

Structures are membrane bound. Contains a nucleus which is where all the genetic information is stored. Found as an abundant cell type amongst humans, animals, and plants

What is the importance of Carbon in the cell?

Carbon serves as a structural backbone for many molecules. Due to its ability to form strong covalent bonds it provides stability which is necessary for these molecules. It can form strong ring and chain structures. Alongside Carbon, the molecules will produce many other chemical groups that contribute to its structure and function.

What are some common structural groups found in molecules?

Carboxyl Groups (COOH), Hydroxyl Group (OH), methyl group (CH3),carbonyl (C=O), phosphoryl group (PO3 2-), and animo group (NH3)

What is the composition of Macromolecules in cells?

A cell is 70% Water, 30% Chemicals, 30% chemicals. Half of the chemical components are proteins (15%), RNA is more abundant (6%) than DNA (1%), and polysaccharides (2%). phospholipids (2%), and small inorganic molecules (4%), are not considered macromolecules in the cell.

What are the four major families of organic molecules?

Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Lipids.

What are the building blocks of these organic molecules?

Carbs: Sugars, Proteins: Amino Acis, Lipids: Fatty Acids, Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides

What are the polymer/macromolecules created from said building blocks?

Sugars: Polysaccharides, Starch, Glycogen. Amino Acids: Proteins. Fatty Acids: Lipids/ phospholipids, Nucleotides: Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA)

What are Intermediate Molecules?

Intermediates between monomers and polymers. Help break big processes into step-by-step reactions.

What is the IM for Carbs, Proteins, and NA?

Carbs: Oligosaccrides, Proteins: Peptides, NA: oligonucleotides

What are the names of the specific covalent bonds that hold the macromolecules together?

Carbs: glycosidic, Proteins: peptide linkage NA: phosphodiester bonds

What is a condensation reaction?

Condensation combines two monomers together, it does this by cleaving of an H and an OH from either end of the molecules and created a covalent bond between the two structures. A water molecule is produced as a result of this

What is a hydrolysis reaction and how it is done?

The process of separating a polymer into two monomers. The covalent bond is cleaved off and a water molecule will donate its H and OH to either end of the molecules to fully form the monomers.

Explain why Condensation is either energetically favorable or unfavorable?

The energy that it cost to break the bond between the monomers and the O and OH bonds on them is extremely high. When the polymer is formed, not enough energy is released to compensate for the energy that it used up. therefore this reaction is energetically unfavorable.

Explain why hydrolysis is either energetically favorable or unfavorable?

The energy that is released when then monomers are formed with the water molecules are much greater than the energy it cost to break the polymer apart. therefore it is energetically favorable

Why aren’t lipids considered polymers/ Why do they not utilize Cond and Hydr. Reactions to be synthesized or broken down?

Describe the steps of additional removal/synthesis of subunits

Each addition/removal of a subunit to an existing chain requires its own step of condensation/hydrolysis. For example, you have a polymer with 4 subunits. 3 hydrolysis reactions need to occur to completely break apart the polymer.

What are the functions/characteristics of the carb macromolecule?

Store energy, can transport chemical energy (C-C and C-H bonds in the carbohydrates store a lot of potential energy. These bonds, when broken, release energy that can be used for ATP), and serve as the carbon backbone for many molecules (some non-essential amino acids are formed from carbon backbones derived from glucose)

How do carbohydrate structures typically appear?

Carb monomers typically have 3-6 Carbons attached in most biological structures. (3 Carbons triose, 5 Carbons Pentose, 6 Carbons hexose) often contain C=O groups at either the end or in the middle. They will typically appear in ring structures in aqueous solutions (there is an interaction between the C=O and the OH on the same molecules; this orientation favors the lowest energy state)

How does Glucose appear and what are some of its characteristics?

C6H12O6, in cells glucose will NOT appear in a linear structure rather in a ring structure (Carbons interact and form covalent bonds) typically it is carbon 1 reacting with carbon 5. the C6 will project outside of the ring structure.

What are the polymer/monomer forms of glucose strucutres?

Glucose is the monomer. Glucose bonds together through covalent bonds and forms glycogen. Glucose is stored within this polymer.

What is the name of the bond that combines monosaccrides together?

Glycosidic Bond

Describe the polymerization of monosaccrides?

Monosaccharides form disaccharides through glycosidic bonds. Once we continue to add monomer, we begin to form short chains known as oligoscariddes, these short chains are then built into long chains known as polysaccharides. This reaction is reversible, and is done through5 the process of hydrolysis.

What is the amino acid backbone?

Carboxyl Group (COO), Amino Group (NH3), R Group, Central Carbon atom, hydrogen atom.

What is so special about R Groups?

There are only about 20 distinguishable amino acids, and what differentiates them is their R Groups. R groups are also flexible and allow the polypeptide to twist.

Describe the polymerization of amino acids?

Amino Acids will build on the C terminus end. Two H atoms from the N terminus of the subsequent amino acid will be cleaved off and the O atom from the C terminus will be cleaved off. This will result in the production of H2O. Then the two monomers will form a peptide linkage between the C and N.

What is structural polarity?

A molecule have two different ends. The chemical groups at each end are different from each other, therefore that molecule has a specific direction.

Example of structural polarity

Animo acids have a C terminus and and N terminus. These ends are structurally different due to the presence of either an amino group or a carboxyl group. This means that Animo acids have directionally and when building a polypeptide chain, there is one direction that new amino acids can be added in.

What is a nucleotide and what are its components?

A building block for an NA. Nucleotides are made up of 3 main components. The nitrogenous base, the phosphate group, and a 5 carbon sugar backbone. NA carry genetic information in the sequence of the nucleotides.

How to the Nitrogenous Bases Differ between DNA and RNA?

AT bond in DNA and AU bond in RNA.

What are the different types of Nitrogenous Bases?

Purines include Guanine and Adenine. These are Double Ring Structures. Pyramidine include Uracil, Thymine, Cytosine. These are Single Ring Structures.

What are the differences in pentose sugars in DNA and RNA?

DNA contains a deoxyribose. The nucleotide is considered at deoxyribonucleotide. RNA contains a ribose sugar. The nucleotide is considered a ribonucleotide.

Describe the polymerization of Nucleotides?

One of the the O atoms from the phosphate group of the new nucleotide is added to the H atom on the C3 pentose. The covalent bond created is a phosphodiester bond.

What are the two components of a fatty acids?

They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail and a hydrophilic carboxylic acid head. The head may sometimes contains a phosphate and glycerol but largely depends on the type

What do fatty acids make up?

They make up the membranes of the cell

How are fatty acids stored?

They are stored in cytosol in tiny droplets (triacyclglycerols) and serve as an energy reserve.

What is amphipathic nature and how does it work for biological membranes?

This is the formation that lipids are oriented in the the cell membrane. The hydrophilic heads will face outwards and the hydrophilic tails will face inwards.