CJ Research Methods final Exam

Define Empirical Research

is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory

What are the 2 scientific standards for agreement reality?

1. Empirical Support
2. Logical Support

What is the FORMAL definition of social science research methods ?

A systematic procedure or technique used by a discipline to acquire knowledge

What is the INFORMAL definition of social science research methods?

The study of how we know what we know

What are the 2 reasons we need to know about social science research methods?

1. Being Consumers of Research2. Being Producers of research

What is Qualitative Data?

Data explained with words than numbers

What is quantative data?

numerical data

Explain the basic flow of the research circle...

Inductive research = deductive research
data = theory

What is Deductive Research?

Theoretical expectation leads to gathering of data to test the expectation in the real world (general to specific)

What is Inductive Research?

Specific observations lead to a discovery of a general pattern (specific to general)

Name the 4 purposes of research

1. Descriptive Research
2. Exploratory Research
3. Explanatory Research
4. Evaluation/ Applied Research

What is Descriptive Research?

seeks to define and describe a social phenomena
Ex: "how much crime there is" - "how many people attend this university"

What is Exploratory Research?

seeks to understand and investigate social phenomena about which little is known. often qualitative

What is Explanatory Research?

seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena

What is Evaluation/ Applied Research?

seeks to determine the overall effectiveness of a CJ intervention

What's a hypothesis?

Specific statements or predictions regarding the relationship between two variables

What does Idiographic mean?

a full and complete explanation of a single case
Ex: diving into all the details of the person's life (childhood) which then uncovers possible trauma

What does Nomothetic mean?

a simple (parsimonious) explanation of related cases

Independent Variable (IV)

variable that is manipulated or the presumed cause

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study
aka. presumed outcome or effect

Difference between a variable and an attribute..

-variables are logical groupings of attributes; age, sex, race
-attributes are characteristics that describe a person, place, or thing

What are the 6 criteria that is needed for evaluating criminological theories?

1. Logical Consistency
2. Scope
3. Parsimony
4. Falsifiability
5. Empirical Validity
6. Practical Utility

What the difference between micro and macro levels of theory?

- Micro level : explains individuals involvement in crime
- Macro level: explains group involvement in crime

T/F Random Sampling and Random Assignment are NOT the same thing

True!!!

What's appropriate time order ?

states that the independent variable MUST be measured before the dependent variable to ensure correct causal ordering

Cross Sectional Data

All data are collected at a single point in time

Longitudinal data

Data are collected at two or more points in time

What is Empirical Association?

Two variables must be related with each other (i.e., they must vary together or "covary")
The three types include positive, negative and no association at all

Difference between + and - associations

+ = variables in same direction
- = variables in opposite direction

What are the 3 main requirements to make a strong casual inference?

1.Empirical Association2. Appropriate Time-Order3. Non-Spuriousness

What are trend studies?

A Longitudinal study where data is collected at 2 or more different points in time from DIFFERENT samples of the same population

What's a Fixed-Sample Panel Design?

A Longitudinal study where data is collected at 2 or more points in time from SAME samples.

What are the 4 types of validity?

1. external
2. internal
3. construct
4. statistical conclusion

What are units of analysis?

the level of social life or phenomena that is being studied

What are units of observation?

the level of social life or phenomena that is being observed

Measurement Reliability

shows that the measurement produces the same results each time

Measurement Validity

states that the measurement accurately reflects the meaning of a concept

Types of validity assessments of measures

face, criterion, content, construct

What's the difference between Confidentiality and Anonymity?

Confidentiality: subjects CAN be identified only by the researchers
Anonymity: subjects CANNOT be identified even by the researchers

What are the 3 primary ethical considerations researchers must consider ?

1. voluntary participation
2. avoidance of harm
3. protection of subjects identities

What are the 4 ethical considerations when reporting research?

1. Revealing limitations
2. Reporting null findings
3. Avoiding staging findings
4. Protecting subject identities

Name the 4 ethical conundrums

1. Mandatory reporting
2. withholding of treatment
3. Research influences crime
4. Staff misbehavior

As a general rule, researchers should avoid causing what to research subjects, researchers, informants and other individuals?

They should avoid causing any physical and physiological harm

What are the different level of measurements?

nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

What are Nominal Measures

Measures that simply tell us there is a difference between attributes

What are Ordinal Measures

Measures that rank-order differences between attributes

What are Interval Measures

Measures that use equally spaced intervals to meaningfully specify the difference between rank-ordered attributes

What are Ratio Measures

Measures that use equally spaced intervals and a true zero point to meaningfully specify the difference and proportional difference between rank-ordered attributes, respectively

What's the difference between mutually exclusive measures and mutually exhaustive measure

1- Exhaustive: All possible attributes of a variable must be specified
2- Mutually Exclusive: Each observation can take on only one attribute

What is the conceptualization process?

The process of specifying exactly what a concept means

what is the operationalization process?

The process of specifying the procedure for actually measuring the concepts in our research

What is the best sampling methods for generalizability?

probability sampling (random sampling)
may include:
- simple random sampling
- systematic sampling
- stratified sampling
- disproportionate stratified sampling
- cluster sampling

explain probability sampling and implications for generalizability

-A method of sampling in which each individual has a known probability of being selected into the sample.
- randomization is utilized

explain non- probability sampling and implications for generalizability

-A method of sampling in which each individual does not have a known probability of being selected into the sample
- randomization is not utilized

Explain sampling error

Error that occurs when we use a sample statistic to estimate the value of a population parameter.

Explain sampling bias

Error that occurs from using a non-probability sample or from under coverage.

What is under coverage?

Undercoverage refers to the sampling frame not capturing everyone in the target population.

What is non-response bias?

Error that occurs when some sampled subjects refuse to participate or do not complete portions of the survey.

What is a response bias

- Error that occurs from subjects' incorrect responses or poorly worded questionnaires.

What type of error occurs with probability sampling but due to randomization we have statical theory to guide our inferences

Sampling error

_______ ________ also occurs with non-probability and, because of lack of randomization, sampling bias is likely

sampling error

What is the sampling frame?

The 'list' of elements from which a probability sample is drawn

We want the sampling frame to include ___________ in the population

everyone!

What happens when the sampling frame doesn't dhow everyone in the population?

non-representative probability samples are possible because those not in sampling frame may differ fundamentally from those in the sampling frame.

What are the 4 types of non-probability samples?

-Availability Sampling
- purposive sampling
- quota sampling
- snowball sampling

What are the 5 types of probability samples

- Simple Random Sampling
- systematic sampling
- stratified sampling
- disproportionate stratified sampling
- cluster sampling

Explain experimental research

- Research design in which the experimenter controls all aspects of the research
- random assignment is utilized
- Considered the "gold standard" of social science research

What is Quasi-Experimental Research?

Research in which the experimenter approximates experimental research with observational data
- random assignment is not utilized

What is Interrupted Time Series

is an analysis is a useful quasi-experimental design with which to evaluate the longitudinal effects of interventions, through regression modeling.

What are focus groups

Small group of people that engage in a guided discussion of a topic or issue

How does one gain access to research subjects in field research

A case study in which the researcher goes into a natural environment and acquires knowledge via observation and asking questions

What are the 3 goals of field research/ ethnography

- To fully understand a particular case as it occurs in the natural environment
- To collect data that enables the creation of grounded theory
- Inductive theory building

What are saturation points in field research ?

The saturation point occurs when new interviews or observations yield little additional information

What is a full participant

Research subjects view the researcher as "one of them."

What is a participant observer

Participate but make it known to research subjects that you are a researcher and are collecting data

What is a full observer ?

Researcher refrains from participation

What's an example of a structured observations ?

Checklist of physical disorder items.

What's an example of a unstructured observations

record behaviors and actions as they occur without a specific plan or checklist.

What's an example of a structured interview ?

a set of question is asked during an interview.

What's an example of a unstructured interview ?

conversation flows naturally and questions are adapted accordingly.

What are the 3 ways of administering a survey?

1. Self administration: paper/pencil, computer based, individual or group setting
2. Professional administration: in person interview, CAPI, CASI
3. Telephone interview: CATI

Name the 3 qualities of surgery's and survey research

- Versatility
- Efficiency
- Generalizability

Define Versatility

Survey research that can enhance knowledge about various topics in criminology, criminal justice, and social science generally.

Define Efficiency in regards to quality survey

Data on a large number of variables can be collected with a single survey, thereby making surveys useful for a variety of research purposes.

Define generalizability

The use of probability sampling methods in conjunction with surveys make them generalizable. The method naturally encourages sampling considerations.

List some recommendations when developing survey questions

- use simple language
- avoid double barred questions
- avoid negative items
- do not add language that biases a response
- avoid vilifying language
- avoid placing prestigious entities in general questions
- do not use unbalanced responses options

List the steps in survey development

#1 - determine constructs and questions
#2 - construct/design the survey
#3 - method of administration
#4 - pretest
#5 - revise the survey

Compare and contrast open-ended and close-ended questions

Open-ended questions allow respondents to provide any answer, whereas closed-ended questions restrict choice to pre-specified responses.

List the types of survey questions ...

- Behavior: frequency, variety, and prevalence of offending and/or victimization
-Attitudes and perceptions: attitudes toward police, perceptions of procedural justice, perceptions of rewards/punishments for crime, acculturations
- Traits: intelligence, self-control, negative emotionality
- Mental and physical health: Anxiety/depression, somatic complaints
- Social networks and relationships: friend's delinquency (direct or indirect measure), parent-child attachment, sexual relationships, gang
- Opportunity: gun availability, routine activities
- Demographic:age, race/ethnicity, sex, socioeconomic status, religious orientation
- Life transitions: incarceration, high school graduation, marriage, military service

T/F questions or statements should be used as appropriate when creating types of survey questions

true!

What's an experimental design?

when a researcher plans a set of procedures to investigate a relationship between variables

What's a factorial design?

a type of research methodology that allows for the investigation of the main and interaction effects between 2 or more independent variables and on one or more outcome variables.

What's a post-test design ?

a research design in which the same assessment measures are given to participants both before and after they have received a treatment or been exposed to a condition.

Define Sampling elements

The elements about which information is collected

Define sampling units

What we use to gain information about sampling elements

T/F sampling elements and units are either always the same and or always different

false... they are sometimes the same and sometimes different
ex: survey wardens (unit) to study prisons (element

What is Simple Random Sampling

The generation of a sample by randomly selecting each case
- a type of probability sampling (#1)

What is systematic random sampling?

the generation of a sample by randomly selecting one case and selecting each nth case thereafter
- a type of probability sampling (#2)

What is Proportionate Stratified random sampling?

The generation of a sample by randomly selecting a specified number of cases within each strata to eliminate sampling error along the strata
- a type of probability sampling (#3)

What is Disproportionate Stratified random sampling?

The generation of a sample by randomly selecting a specified number of cases within each strata to ensure a sufficient number of cases within each strata.
- a type of probability sampling (#4)