Week One Readings

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes.

Anatomy

The study of body structure and how parts relate; traditionally driven by dissection, now also uses living-body imaging.

Physiology

The study of body function and how it works; grounded in chemistry/physics and studied with controlled experiments.

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

Anatomy visible to the naked eye without magnification.

Microscopic anatomy

Anatomy seen with a microscope; includes cytology (cells) and histology (tissues).

Cytology

The study of cells.

Histology

The study of tissues.

Regional anatomy

Study of all structures in a specific region of the body.

Systemic anatomy

Study of one body system across the entire body.

Neurophysiology

Functional study of the nervous system from organ to molecular levels.

Levels of organization

Increasing complexity: subatomic particles → atoms → molecules → organelles → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism → biosphere.

Cell

The smallest independently functioning unit; membranes separate intracellular from extracellular environments.

Organelles

Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific tasks.

Tissues

Coordinated groups of similar or related cells performing a common function.

Organs

Anatomically distinct structures composed of ≥2 tissues.

Organ systems

Groups of organs that work together for major body functions.

Integumentary system

System including skin and related structures.

Skeletal system

Bones and joints; supports and protects the body.

Muscular system

Muscles; enable movement and heat production.

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves; controls and coordinates body activities.

Endocrine system

Glands and hormones; regulates body functions via chemical signaling.

Cardiovascular system

Heart and blood vessels; transports nutrients, gases, and wastes.

Lymphatic system

Immune function and fluid balance; returns tissue fluid to blood.

Respiratory system

Lungs and airways; gas exchange.

Digestive system

Organs involved in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients.

Urinary system

Kidneys and urinary tract; filters blood and regulates fluids/electrolytes.

Reproductive system

Male and female organs involved in gamete production and offspring.

Biological sex

Refers to XX/XY anatomy; gender identity is distinct from biological sex.

Homeostasis

Steady internal conditions maintained by continuous monitoring and adjustment.

Set point

Target value for a physiologic parameter within a normal range.

Sensor (receptor)

Detects changes in the internal or external environment.

Control center

Compares sensor input to the set point and directs responses.

Effector

Executes the corrective action to restore normal conditions.

Negative feedback

Stabilizes by reversing deviations from the set point.

Positive feedback

Amplifies change until a end point is reached, then stops (usually to finish a process).

Thermoregulation

Regulation of body temperature via heat loss or gain mechanisms.

Insulin

Hormone from pancreatic β-cells that lowers blood glucose by promoting uptake and storage.

Anatomical position

Body upright, feet apart, palms forward, thumbs outward; reference for directions.

Superior

Toward the head (cranial).

Inferior

Toward the feet (caudal).

Anterior

Front of the body; ventral surface in humans.

Posterior

Back of the body; dorsal surface in humans.

Medial

Toward the midline of the body.

Lateral

Away from the midline.

Proximal

Closer to the point of limb attachment.

Distal

Farther from the point of limb attachment.

Superficial

Near the body surface.

Deep

Farther from the body surface.

Sagittal plane

Plane that divides the body into right and left portions; midsagittal is at the midline.

Midsagittal

A sagittal plane that runs exactly along the midline.

Parasagittal

A sagittal plane offset from the midline.

Frontal (coronal) plane

Plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

Transverse (horizontal) plane

Plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Oblique plane

A plane that passes through the body at an angle.

Dorsal cavity

Cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord).

Cranial cavity

Space inside the skull housing the brain.

Vertebral (spinal) cavity

Space within the vertebral column housing the spinal cord.

Ventral cavity

Thoracic cavity (pleural, mediastinum, pericardial) plus abdominopelvic cavity.

Pleurae

Serous membranes around the lungs.

Pericardium

Serous membrane around the heart.

Peritoneum

Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering abdominal organs.

Serous membranes

Double-layered membranes with serous fluid to reduce friction.

Parietal membrane

Lines the walls of a body cavity.

Visceral membrane

Covers the organs within a cavity.

Abdominopelvic quadrants

Four quadrants (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ) used for localization of organs.

Nine abdominal regions

Regions: right/left hypochondriac, epigastric; right/left lumbar, umbilical; right/left iliac (inguinal), hypogastric.

X-ray

Ionizing imaging that shows bones best; limited soft-tissue detail.

CT (computed tomography)

Rotating X-ray with computer reconstruction; cross-sectional slices; better soft tissue detail.

MRI

Magnetic-field imaging with high soft-tissue contrast; no ionizing radiation; contraindicated with some implants; includes functional MRI (fMRI).

PET

Imaging of metabolic activity using radioactive tracers, often fused with CT/MRI.

Ultrasound

High-frequency sound waves; safe and real-time; limited resolution in air/ ossified tissues.

Angiography

Imaging of blood vessels using contrast agents; DSA enhances vessel visualization.

Epithelial tissue

Tissue lining internal/external surfaces; protection, secretion, absorption; shapes include squamous, cuboidal, columnar; layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified, transitional.

Connective tissue

Supports and anchors organs; matrix-rich; can be fluid, flexible, or rigid (e.g., blood, tendons, bone, cartilage).

Muscle tissue

Contractile tissue with skeletal, smooth, and cardiac subtypes.

Nervous tissue

Tissue of neurons and glial cells; forms CNS (brain/spinal cord) and PNS (nerves).

Cell membrane

Plasma membrane that separates intracellular from extracellular environments; semi-permeable.

Phospholipid bilayer

Membrane structure with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails; fluid mosaic.

Fluid mosaic model

Dynamic arrangement of phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol in the membrane.

Cholesterol

Membrane component that modulates fluidity and rigidity.

Glycocalyx

Carbohydrate-rich coating on the cell surface; roles in recognition and adhesion.

Glycoproteins

Carbohydrate-protein molecules on the membrane involved in cell recognition.

Receptors

Membrane proteins that bind signaling molecules; may be integral or peripheral.

Diffusion

Passive movement of small nonpolar molecules down their concentration gradient.

Simple diffusion

Direct diffusion of molecules like O2 and CO2 across the membrane.

Facilitated diffusion

Diffusion aided by membrane channels or carriers (e.g., glucose, Na+, K+).

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Isotonic

Solution with equal solute concentration; no net water movement.

Hypertonic

Solution with higher solute concentration outside; cells shrink.

Hypotonic

Solution with lower solute concentration outside; cells swell.

Filtration

Movement of fluid/solutes driven by hydrostatic pressure.

Active transport

Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient using energy.

Mitochondria

Organelle responsible for energy production and metabolism.

Nucleus

Organelle containing genetic material (DNA) and controls cell activities.

Vesicular transport

Movement of materials in vesicles, including endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis

Process of bringing material into the cell via vesicles; includes phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Phagocytosis

Endocytosis of large particles;

Pinocytosis

Endocytosis of fluids; cellular drinking.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Selective uptake mediated by receptors (e.g., transferrin bringing in iron).

Exocytosis

Vesicles fuse with the membrane to release contents outside the cell.

Osteogenic cells

Undifferentiated bone cells that can become osteoblasts.