UNIT 5: Cognition (copy)

memory

memory

the persistence of learning over time through encoding, the storage and retrieval of information

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Explicit (declarative) memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

information-processing models

frameworks used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe the processes of the human brain

connectionism

a type of information-processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (echoic = auditory, iconic = visual)

Long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

short-term memory

memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

memory store

a set of neurons that serves to retain information over time

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

explicit (declarative) memories

memories that require conscious recall

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through automatic processing

slide definition: Memories that you are not consciously aware of but can still impact your behaviour

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

selective (focused) attention

Voluntarily focusing on a portion of our sensory inputs while ignoring others

episodic memories

memories of personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred (invidual unique memories)

semantic memories

memories of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions (similar memories that people have)

procedural memories

memories for the performance of actions or skills (ex. knowing how to type, ride a bike, or drive)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

• example: credit card numbers 123-567

mneumonic

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (ex. PEMDAS)

peg-word system

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

acronyms

abbreviations that stand in for common phrases (ex. STAAR)

hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

• example: we try to remember the word by repeating it

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

• example: applying concepts to a new problem.

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

cerebellum

plays a heavy role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning (damage in this area removes conditioned reflexes); the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

basal ganglia

deep structures in the forebrain that help to control movement

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

flashbulb memories

A unique and highly emotional moment can give rise to clear, strong, and persistent memory.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in long-term implicit memory

Encoding specifically principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us remember it

• example: if you study for a test in a specific room, you will perform better on that test if you take it in the same room

context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

when learning occurs in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, drunk, sick) it is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list and the middle the least

eidetic memory

the ability to remember with great accuracy sensory (ie visual, auditory) information on the basis of short-term exposure

exceptional memory

Refers to people who have exceptional memory abilities

savant syndrome

People with savant syndrome excel in abilities not related to general intelligence

pseudo-memories

false memories that a person believes are true or accurate

proactive interference

Old information interferes with remembering new information

retroactive interference

anterograde amnesia

inability to remember ongoing events after the incidence of trauma or the onset of the disease that caused the amnesia

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

source amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (Also called source misattribution.)

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

storage decay

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

motivated forgetting

People unknowingly revise their memories; we don’t remember items we don’t want to remember

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

negative transfer

when old information conflicts with the learning of new information

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

a mental image or best example

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes "thinking about thinking"

trial and error

A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

• exmaple:

heuristic

insight

involves sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem (the “ah ha” moment).

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought (gut feelings, vibes)

mindset

the cognitive view that individuals develop for themselves.

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

cognitive biases

obstacles in thinking that lead to systematic errors in our decision making and interfere with our rational thinking

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

mental set

a prime example of fixation is mental set, our tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has worked for us previously.

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

• May lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

cognitive dissonance

uncomfortable feeling a person gets when their actions don't align with their beliefs

justification of effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

risk aversion

the tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff

loss aversion

the tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains

anchoring

the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind