Psychology Quiz 2

Unconditioned Stimulus

something (food) that triggers a natural occurring response

Unconditional Response

the naturally occurring response (salivation) that follows the

unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

neutral stimulus (sound) that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response

acquired response (salivation) to the formerly neutralstimulus.

Extinction

the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

the increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction.

Generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical.

Second-Order Conditioning

in some cases, an existing conditioned stimulus can serve as an unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

Taking painkillers that eliminate pain increases the likelihood that you will take painkillers again

Phobia

a strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation.

Classical Conditioning

learning that occurs based on the association to new stimuli with natural, biological responses such as salivation or fear.

Operant Conditioning

learning that occurs based on the consequences of behavior and can involve the learning of new actions through praise and reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Giving a student a prize after he gets an A on a test

Law of Effect

the principle that responses that create an outcome in particular situations

Skinner Box (operant chamber)

structure that is big enough to fit a rodent or bird and that contains a bar or key that the organism can press or peck to release food or water. It contains a device to record the animal’s responses.

Positive punishment

Giving a student extra homework after she misbehaves in class

Negative punishment

Taking away a teen’s computer after he misses curfew

Positive & Negative Reinforcement

works by increasing the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive & Negative Punishment

any event that weakens or reduces the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement: Add or increase a pleasant stimulus

Behavior is strengthened

Negative reinforcement Reduce or remove an unpleasant stimulus

Behavior is strengthened

Positive punishment Present or add an unpleasant stimulus

Behavior is weakened

Negative punishment Reduce or remove a pleasant stimulus

Behavior is weakened

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

in which the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

Partial (for intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule:

in which the responses are sometimes reinforced, and sometimes not

Fixed-ratio

Behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. EX: Factory workers who are paid according to the number of products they produce

Variable-ratio

Behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses. EX: Payoffs from slot machines and other games of chance

Fixed-interval

Behavior is reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time has passed. EX: People who earn a monthly salary

Variable-interval

Behavior is reinforced for the first response after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed. EX: Person who checks voice mail for messages

Insight

the sudden understanding of a solution to a problem.

Latent Learning

learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

Observational Learning

learning by observing the behavior of others.

Advertising

use of classical conditioning to associate a pleasant response with a product.

Classroom

rewards are frequently and effectively used in education.

Social Dilemmas

“Prisoners Dilemma” desire to maximize one’s outcomes in a competitive relationship.

Types of Memory

Explicit memory Implicit memory

Stages of Memory

Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

Processes of Memory

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Explicit Memory

Requires conscious awareness

Implicit Memory

Does not require conscious awareness

Explicit Memory contains

semantic and episodic memory

Semantic memory

facts and general knowledge

Episodic Memory

Personally experienced events

Implicit memory contains

procedural memory, priming, and learning through classical conditioning

Procedural memory

Motor and cognitive skills

Priming

Enhanced identification of objects or words

Explicit Memory

assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must consciously attempt to remember the information.

Implicit Memory

the influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences.

Sensory Memory

the brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

visual sensory memory, can decay very rapidly.

Echoic Memory

auditory sensory memory, can last as long 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute.

Long-Term Memory (STM)

storage that can hold information for days, months, and years.

Use elaborative encoding

Material is better remembered if it is processed more fully.

Make use of the self-reference effect

Material is better remembered if it is linked to thoughts about the self.

Be aware of the forgetting curve.

Information that we have learned drops off rapidly with time.

Make use of the spacing effect

Information is learned better when it is studied in shorter periods spaced over time.

Rely on overlearning

We can continue to learn even after we think we know the information perfectly.

Use context-dependent retrieval

We have better retrieval when it occurs in the same situation in which we learned the material.

Use state-dependent retrieval

We have better retrieval when we are in the same psychological state as we were when we learned the material.

Long-Term Potentiation (LPC)

refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as a result of frequent stimulation.

Hippocampus

– important in explicit memories

Cerebellum

– important in implicit memories

Amygdala

– important in emotional memories

Amnesia

a memory disorder that involves the inability to remember information.

Retrograde Amnesia

produces an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time.

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Cognitive Biases

errors in memory or judgement that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes.

Development

the physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) and by environmental influences (nurture)

Infancy

developmental stage that begins at birth and continues to one year of age

Childhood

period between infancy and the onset of puberty.

Adolescence

years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood.

Adulthood

includes emerging, early, middle, and older adulthood, and facing of death.

Conception

when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father.

Ovulation

when an ovum, or egg (the largest cell in the human body), which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is released into the fallopian tube.

Zygote

a fertilized ovum (egg) fused together by half of the 23 chromosomes from the egg and half of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm.

Embryo

when the zygote attaches to the wall of the mother’s uterus

The Protective Environment consist of three major strucutres

Amniotic Sac, Placenta, Umbilical Cord

Amniotic Sac

the fluid-filled reservoir in which the embryo will live until birth, and which acts as both a cushion against outside pressure and as a temperature regulator.

Placenta

an organ that allows the exchange of nutrients between the embryo and the mother, while at the same time filtering out harmful material.

Umbilical Cord

links the embryo directly to the placenta and transfers all material to the fetus.

Fetus

at the 9th week after conception the embryo becomes

Teratogens

substances that harm the fetus when mother is exposed to a large amount for a long period of time during early pregnancy

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

a conditioned caused by maternal alcohol drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects (limb & facial abnormalities, genital anomalies, mental retardation)

Rooting reflex

The baby’s cheek is stroked.

The baby turns its head toward the stroking, opens its mouth, and tries to suck. (Rooting reflex)

Ensures the infant’s feeding will be a reflexive habit

Blink reflex

A light is flashed in the baby’s eyes

The baby closes both eyes. (Blink reflex)

Protects eyes from strong and potentially dangerous stimuli

Withdraw al reflex

A soft pinprick is applied to the sole of the baby’s foot.

The baby flexes the leg. (withdrawal reflex)

Keeps the exploring infant away from painful stimuli

Tonic neck reflex

The baby is laid down on its back

The baby turns its head to one side and extends the arm on the same side. (Tonic neck reflex)

Helps develop hand-eye coordination

Grasp reflex

An object is pressed into the palm of the baby

The baby grasps the object pressed and can even hold its own weight for a brief period.(Grasp reflex)

Helps in exploratory learning

Moro reflex

Loud noises or a sudden drop in height while holding the baby.

The baby extends arms and legs and quickly brings them in as if trying to grasp something (Moro Reflex)

Protects from falling; could have assisted infants in holding onto their mothers during rough traveling

Stepping reflex

The baby is suspended with bare feet just above a surface and is moved forward.

Baby makes stepping motions as if trying to walk (Stepping reflex)

Helps encourage motor development

Habituation

the decreased responsiveness toward a stimulus after it has been presented numerous times in succession.