Sociolinguistics - Test 1

Ideology

A common framework of understanding or set of assumptions about the way the world works. Ideologies impact how we act socially, especially in terms of what language we use and when.

Prescriptivism

The belief that there are good and bad ways of speaking and that “good speech” should be taught or enforced; the belief that language of the past is “more proper” usually goes along with this.

Descriptivism

The belief that people speak the way they do for a reason and that change is a part of language. Descriptivism aims to understand why people speak the way they do.

Norm

A belief that is shared among a large group of people, usually legitimated by some kind of ideology. It allows us to deem behavior appropriate or inappropriate.

Standard

Involves a deliberate, conscious judgement of or intervention in behaviors. It is usually enforced via laws or implicit social punishment.

Overt prestige

The adjustment of speech to reflect power or status. In other words, to try and appear prestigious to a larger society.

Covert prestige

The adjustment of speech to reflect solidarity or belonging. In other words, to try and appear prestigious within a certain community but maybe not to the larger society.

Speech accommodation theory

The idea that speakers speak differently depending on who they’re speaking to. This could include different languages, varieties, or even different registers of speaking.

Convergence

When speakers shift their language to match a certain demographic or appeal to an “in-group”. For instance, speaking AAE to fit in at a social gathering of other AAE speakers.

Divergence

When speakers shift their language to create distance between them and a certain demographic (appeal to an “out-group”). For example, speaking AAE around a group of non-speakers to create a sense of solidarity.

Linguistic profiling

Bias or discrimination against a certain person or group based on their way of speaking. This could include the language they use, their dialect, or their accent.

Matched guise

A technique that involves the same person speaking in different languages, dialects, or accents and observing the differing reactions. This reveals the ideologies people hold around specific ways of speaking.

Perceptual dialectology

Understanding the attitudes people hold toward language and speakers through reactions to dialects.

Code-Switching

Switching from one language or variety to another language or variety. For example, someone going from speaking Spanish at home to speaking English at school would be code-switching.

Style shifting

Shifting from formal speech to informal speech or vice versa. For example, someone shifting from speaking with a professor to speaking with their close friend would be style shifting; they might be using the same standard language or dialect, just in a different register.

Diglossia

Describes a multilingual society in which each dialect or language fulfills a different role. In Haiti, for example, French is used for official purposes while Haitian Creole is spoken casually.

High language or dialect

The language or dialect in a diglossia that is used for official purposes and must have a written form. In Haiti, for example, this would be French.

Low language or dialect

The language or dialect in a diglossia that is used for casual purposes and might not have a written form. In Haiti, for example, this would be Haitian Creole.

Symmetrical multilingualism

A multilingual society in which all languages have similar status. In practice this is a bit more rare, but it does exist in some European countries.

Asymmetrical multilingualism

A multilingual society in which one language has higher status over another. For example, English in the United States is seen as the dominant language while others (such as Spanish, Mandarin, Arabic, etc.) are spoken, but seen as less prestigious.

Territorial multilingualism

A multilingual society in which languages have inequal statuses, but the higher one differs throughout. For instance, English and French are both spoken throughout Canada, but English is more dominant in Toronto, for instance, while French is more dominant in Quebec.

Social distance

A clear social designation— for instance, between statuses or identities— created between yourself and someone else through language. This could be through use of pronouns, terms of address, slang, dialect usage, etc.

Social closeness

A closeness— for instance, between statuses or identities— between yourself and someone else created by language use. This could be through use of pronouns, terms of address, slang, or even dialect usage.

T-form

Informal second person singular verb form that expresses familiarity and closeness. For example, in Spanish this would be “Tú”.

V-form

Formal second person singular verb form that expresses respect and unfamiliarity. For instance, in Spanish this would be “Usted”.

Taboo language

Language that is strongly regulated and deemed inappropriate in most contexts. While it differs across cultures, taboo language usually has to do with sex, bodily functions, death, or religion. The strength of taboo language can also change over time.

Slang

Terms or phrases used among members of an “in-group” to create social closeness between them. It’s fast-changing, especially now with the help of social media.

Kinship

Systems of referring to different family members; differs depending on the language.

Dialectology

The study of regional or geographical distribution of linguistic variation.

Phonetic variation

Variation in the pronunciation of certain words. Typically, we refer to this as different “accents”.

Lexical variation

Variation in the vocabulary used for certain concepts. For instance, while in America we use the word “elevator”, in England they’d use the word “lift”.

Grammatical variation

Variation in the grammatical structure of sentences. For example, one variety might say “she was standing there” while another would say “she was stood there”.

Social variables

Different demographics that influence language variation. For example, men over 40 might tend to use the word “supper” more while men under 40 use the word “dinner” more.

Linguistic variables

Linguistic areas in which there are multiple ways to express the same meaning. For example, because there are multiple ways to pronounce the /s/ sound in Spanish, it’d be a linguistic variable.

Variants

Different ways of expressing a sociolinguistic variable. For example, in Spanish, variants of the /s/ sound would be [s], [h], [ʔ], or [∅].

Free variation

Variables that can be altered without constraint. For example, the pronunciation of “dog” being closer to “dog” or “dawg” isn’t constrained.

Constrainted variation

Variables that are constrained by social or linguistic factors. For example, the pronunciation of the velar [ING] instead of the alveolar [ING] might depend on whether or not the word that contains it is a verb.