Relationships

5 main factors involved in the formation of relationships:

- physical attractiveness
- Proximity
- Attitude similarity
- Demographic similarity
- Personalisty similarity

physical attractiveness

the more physically attractive you are, the more popular you become

Proximity

where we lived and what our jobs are determine what people we come into contact with

attitude similarity

the more similar the attitudes between people, the more likely they are to become friends/partners

demographic similarity

age, religion, social class act. have a role in what relationships we form- people who are similar to ourselves

personality similarity

goes against ideas of 'opposites attract' and supports the idea that 'birds of a feather flock together'

what has shown to be attractive in research studies?

symmetry and the 'baby face'

Dion et al: Halo effect

- 'what is beautiful is good'
- we have preconceived ideas about attractive people often positive
- we act more positively. towards them

Palmer and Peterson (Halo Effect) evidence

found physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive

what did Elaine Walster put forwards to explain the formation of relationship?

Matching hypothesis

what does the matching hypothesis predict?

1. The more socially desirable a person, the more desirable the person they expect to be dating
2. Couples who are ' matched' are more likely to have happy relationships

what is argued to be a major factor in initial courtship?

Physical attractiveness

why don't we go for people who are 'out of our league'?

due to fear of rejection

Walster et al- The dance study

- 376 males, 376 female undergrad volunteers
- students were rated by judges in terms of physical attractiveness
- randomly paired up at blind date dance
- at intervals were separated and asked to give rating on their date

results of Walster dance study

they found only significant predictor of how highly people were rated, was because of their physical attractiveness
- people rate more attractive ppl higher

what happened after 6 months for Walster study?

Walter asked ppts if they had dated their partner again, ppt who rated each other similar were more likely to go out again

how is Walsters study more like reallife study?

- ppts were quizzed 6 mnths after so had time to think about qualities they want in partner
- no snap decisions made
HIGH ecological validity

Weakness to walsters study: students

- very large sample
howver
- only students
we don't know what adults look for in lifelong relationships
- unrepresentative sample and cannot be generalised

what do most research into the matching hypothesis involve?

heterosexual couples a sit fits in with evolutionary theory
- LGBTQ+ relationships?
- cannot be applied to all groups

:( Focusing on physical attractiveness doesn't take into account 'complex matching'

compensating poor physical attractiveness with other traits
e.g. a successful old man with a beautiful woman may occur

:( The matching hypothesis cannot account for the formation of all types of relationships

- arrange marriage?
- tend to last a long time and they aren't matched
- some relationships start on internet suggesting physical attractiveness may have a different level of significance

:( individual differences (Towhey)

found physical attractiveness was not important to everyone and found those ppt who scored higher on a sexism scale, were more likely to use physical attractiveness as a factor when deciding like;ebality of someone

Who put forward 'the filter theory' ?

Kerckhoff and Davis

Filter theory

- choice of partners based on filters applied to a 'set of potential partners',
- reducing the no. of potential partners
- they get through each filter, attraction toward individual grow
- once passed all 3 filters, a field of dirigible exits from which a partner is selected

3 filters in filter theory:

1. Social democracy
2. Similarity in attitude
3. Complementarity

Social democracy

look for individual who are similar to ourselves e.g. ethnicity, religion, gender, class, education level

what also is a factor in first stage of filter theory?

proximity
- people near to come across them
- live in the same area, more accessible

what is the outcome of social democracy filter?

homogamy

homogamy

a relationship with people similar to you socially and culturally, people who are different will be discounted

Similarity in attitudes

individual realise they have similar beliefs, attitudes and values e.g individuals are compatible in their desire to have a family

when is similarity in attitudes more important?

Short term- under 18 months
e.g when agreements over basic values will encourage deeper communication

Complementarity

where individuals meet each others needs, especially emotional ones.
- being diff at this stage is not a negative thing as partner can balance each other out

according to complementarity filter, who may a 'high stung/uptight' person go for?

an individual who is 'laid back'

Festinger et al: proximity

people who lived closest to the stairways of apartment had most contact and formed friendships with other residents

how could festinger support social democracy?

demographic variables affect choice of possible partners one could be attracted to

according to Taylor, what percentage of Americans got married to someone of their own ethnic group?

85% - similar backgrounds

How does filter theory have useful application? 👩‍❤️‍💋‍👨

dating agencies
- can measure characters to find relationships that are going to work

How is filter theory biased? hetero/homo

most research involved heterosexual couples so its difficult to conclude that filter theory can be applied to homosexuals

How is filter theory deterministic ?

Mechanistic
- ticking boxes for potential parentr
- people fall in love with people who might not pass all filters, but love them anyway

How does filter theory have good validity ?

Face validity
- what makes relationships work change over time
- similarity may be important in beginning but less so in later years

self-disclosure

refers to revealing personal information about yourself

when do individuals reveal more about themselves?

as romantic relationship develops

who put forward the social penetration theory?

Altman & Taylor

Social Penetration Theory

- how relationships develops
- individuals reveal more about themselves
- 'penetrate' more deeply into each others life

how is trust good in a relationship?

-when personal information has been revealed and its reciprocal

when can social penetration only occur?

when revelations need to be welcomed and reciprocated

what are the 2 elements of discloure?

- Breadth: surface level
- Depth: secrets, personal feelings, painful memories

how is social penetration like onion?

peeling layers of an individual
- low risk info to high risk thus revealing our true selves

what is 'low risk' info?

we not 'putting ourselves out there' as you would reveal this to anyone

which 2 researchers emphasize the importance of reciprocity?

Reis & Shaver

importance of reciprocity

revealing yourself to another individual can be concerning (rejection/misunderstand?)

what happens if the revelation is reciprocated ?

you feel rewarded, understood, trusted by your partner

Appropriateness of the disclosure

- inappropriate info on first date \= 'over the top' 'abnormal'
- social norms indicate what can be reveled

Attributions for the disclosure

- less attractive \= discloses info to everyone
- more attractive\= believe that an individual trust us for them to share intimate info

Gender differences towards intimate info

- if men disclose intimate info to women\= rewarding to women
- if women disclose intimated info to men\= overwhelming to men

Content of the disclosure

- highly intimate info quick \= violating social norms
as recipient may feel threatened and unsure of how to respond

C + E : Sprecher and Hendrick

positive correlation in heterosexuals' couples between satisfaction and level of self-disclosure
However,
do not always show C + E, third variables?

Application: counseling

social penetration theory can be applied to individual who are lacking in social skills ; children struggling to form relationships, theory can help support them - USEFUL IN RELATIONSHIP COUNSELLING

Oversimplified: other factors than self-disclosure

this is a simple account, does not account for other elements of attractions e.g. physical attraction and similarities

C + E and validity: distinguish between friendships and romantic rel for self disclosure

difficult to establish the role of self disclosure in romantic rel
- romantic rel not the same and may vary in intimacy
- may have significant impacts of the level of disclosure and thus attraction to each other

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

Anisogamy

no shortage of fertile males (Unlimited sperm), but a fertile women is rare resource (shortage of eggs)

what are the 2 mating strategies:

- Intra-sexual selection
- Inter-sexual selection

Intra-sexual selection

male-male competition for fertilise females
muscle \= sexual dimorphism to fight

sexual dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species.

Inter-sexual selection

females make a choice and select best male available
- females more picky

why are female more picky?

as they risk so much, more reproduction

what happens if height is found attractive by females?

it would increase the male population with taller genes

peacock tail- runaway process

Long peacock tail \= more reproduction
as its seen as attractive

Sexy sons hypothesis

females will mate with men with desirable characteristic- their sons will inherit this so increase likelihood that other female will mate with their sons and pass on their gene

Who did the research on 800 lonely hearts for sexual selection research?

Waynforth & Dunbar

Waynforth and Dunbar- lonely hearts

- American newspapers
- individuals describe their own qualities and explain what they are looking for in partner

in Waynforth and Dunbar study what did males and females look for in partner?

Men: YOUTH e.g. flirty, exciting, curvy, sexy ect.
Females: RESOURCES e.g. successful, fit, mature, ambitious ect.

how does Waynforth and Dunbars study support sexual selection?

Males will choose mates who are quite young so they are fertile and females will choose men who are successful and higher up in the hierarchy- fit/mature

What kinds of facial feature did Cunningham find that men like?

- Large eyes
- Small nose
- Small chin

What did miller find in lap dancers -fertile?

found lap dancers in fertile phase earned x2 as many tips as women not in fertile phase

What do women look for?

- Resources- financially provide
- Strength: tall, strong, healthy
- Masculine feature: square jaw, big brows

What do both genders look for? Bruce and young

SYMMETRY
- used computer-manipulated images
- found preference for symmetry in both men/women

Penton-voak- women menstrual cycle and how attracted they are to men

Most fertile stage\= attracted to masculine male faces
Less fertile stage\= attracted to more feminine male faces

what are female more attracted to feminine faces at less fertile stage?

signals kindness and co-operation

Clarke and Hatfield : would you go on a date with me?

says yes:
Women- 50%
Men- 50%
Same

Clarke and Hatfield: Would you have sex with me?

says yes:
Women- 0%
Men- 75%

Do all romantic relationships involve reproduction?

No
Homosexual relationship? there is a growing number of people choosing not to have children?

Are we really controlled by our genes? (Determinism)

Dawkins suggest we are free to make our own decisions, so we don't follow our gene

How could culture be stronger influence on mate preference than genes?

attractive varies massively by culture.
Evolutionary theory cant explain by social learning theory can as we learn from others, not our genes

Are there ethical issues with Clarke & Hatfield's study?

ppts were deceived about the true aim so did not give informed consent e.g. women may have felt initimatdedd with the question
'do you want to sleep with me?'

How could research findings for mating preferences be used?

dating sites could use these findings to help people market themselves in best possible way to attract a partner

who thought that all social behaviour is a series of exchanges?

Thibaut and Kelly

People are always striving to maximise their rewards whilst...

minimising their cost

examples of rewards in relationship:

- Safety
- Happiness
- Security
- Comfort
- Money

Examples of costs in relationships:

- TIME
- less freedom/freetime
- effort

What are rewards and costs?

Subjective
i.e. one may like praise, another may like rewards

Commitment to a relationship is dependant on the ................................ of this outcome

profitability

How do we decide whether we are going to make a profit?

comparison level

Comparison level

comparing current relationship rewards to past relationships

when do our comparison level change?

- social norms affect what we think is acceptable
- the more relationships we had, the more 'data' inputted
- self esteem

what comparison level will you have with HIGH self esteem?

HIGH
only settle for more, people better

Comparison level of Alternatives

compare our rewards and cost in our current relationship compared to potential ones
"is the grass greener elsewhere"

what does the comparison level of alternatives say about why we stay in relationships?

only if it is more rewarding than others.
- if costs are currently higher than rewards, we are more likely to look for other options

E: why do people stay in abusive relationships? why do people leave relationships without alternatives? V/D

where cost are high and rewards are low, so there may be other factors involves