Anthropology 112 | Midterm 1

What are the 4 subfields of anthropology?

1) Cultural Anthropology

2) Linguistic Anthropology

3) Archaeology

4) Biological

What are the different types of Archaeology?

1) Prehistoric Archaeology - Study of a period before written records

2) Historical Archaeology - Combination of remains and written records.

3) Biological Anthropology - Study of human and non human primates. Wide range of field taking in past and present biological aspects of human kind.

What are the different types of Biological Anthropology?

1) Paleoanthropology - Study of human evolution.

2) Bioarcheology - Study of human remains.

3) Primatology - Study of non-human primates.

Christian Jurgenson Thomsen

- Developed the Three Age System (Iron, Bronze, and Stone Age)

- No technology, found the relative dates and based age on how deep the artifact was in the ground.

Archbishop James Ussher

Analyzed the Bible and determined the earth was created in 4004 B.C.

Georges Cuvier

French paleontologist who introduces the concept of extinction, proposed the theory of catastrophism.

What does "Catastrophism" suggest?

That a quick series of catastrophic events is responsible for changing the earth and the fossil record.

James Hutton

Scottish geologist that advanced the theory of uniformitarianism.

Charles Lyell

Founder of modern geology, and built ideas of uniformitarianism.

What does "Uniformitarianism" suggest?

Earth's features are results of long-term processes, such as erosion, that continue today as they did in the past

Jacques Boucher de Perthes

Discovered ancient stone tools with the bones of extinct animals.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

- One of the first to attempt to explain the evolutionary process.

- Proposed the theory of inheritance.

What is "The Theory of Inheritance"?

States that if the external environment changes, an animal's behavior would change to accommodate the new circumstances. This ultimately results in the modification of body parts (E.g. Girraffes develop long necks over time).

Charles Darwin

- Developed the theory of evolution through natural selection.

- First to document, in heavy detail, the mechanism which evolution occurs.

- 1859, published "On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection".

- Traveled to the Galapagos Islands, where he noticed differences in the local species, more specifically the birds.

Alfred Russel Wallace

Unlike Darwin, came by the "Evolution by Natural Selection" conclusion on his own. Recognized the same differences as Darwin.

What is "Natural Selection"?

Natural selection is the process where organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their traits to future generations (E.g. Peppered Moths)

What are the main principles of Natural Selection?

1) Variation

2) Heritability

3) Differential Reproductive Success

What are "Fossil Locales"?

Places where fossilized remains of once living organisms are found.

What are "Fossils"?

The preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past.

What are "Trace Fossils"?

Indirect evidence such as footprints, fossilized feces, burrows, etc.

What are "Unaltered Fossils"?

Remains preserved without mineralization. Some factors that lead to this are dry, freezing, or consistently water logged environments.

What is an "Archaeological Site"?

A place where evidence of past human activity is found. Each site is named based on what they were primarily used for (I.e. habitation site, butchering site, kill site).

What are "Artifacts"?

Portable objects, manufactured by a human or human ancestor. Examples include pottery, bone tools, arrowheads.

What are "Features"?

Non-portable items made by humans, or a combination of artifacts/ecofacts at a site, reflecting the location of human activity.

What are "Ecofacts"?

Organic items that reflect human activity but are not manufactured by people. Examples include burned seeds, discarded animal bones, and phytoliths.

What is the Archaeological Legislation and Ethics?

1) The first step in any archaeological investigation is obtaining the appropriate permits.

2) In Saskatchewan, the Heritage Property Act was enacted to protect archaeological sites and other heritage resources.

3) Archaeologists must behave in an ethical manner abiding by codes of ethics and respecting legislation protecting archaeological resources.

What is "Site Surveying"?

The process of discovering the location of archaeological materials; sometimes called site reconnaissance (I.e. determining how much vegetation there is, how much sediment there is).

How does "Pedestrian Surveying" work?

- Walking back and forth in straight lines called transects.

- Visually inspecting the ground surface looking for artifacts or surface irregularities.

- Mark locations using GPS units or flags to have an accurate map of the area.

How does "Shovel Testing" work?

Involves digging small test pits to determine if there are sites below the surface. Sometimes involves using a small drill.

What are "Remote Sensing Methods"?

Non-invasive methods of locating sites applied from a distance.

What are different types of Remote Sensing Methods?

1) Aerial Photography / Satellite Imaging

2) LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

How does "Aerial Photography / Satellite Imaging" work?

Gives you an overhead view of features of the landscape.

How does "LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)" work?

Uses pulsed laser light to measure the distance to the earth surface. Maps archaeological sites by measuring subtle differences in elevation.

What are Geophysical Survey Techniques?

Non-invasive techniques that use specialized equipment to locate objects beneath the surface.

What is "Electrical Resistivity"?

This method measures variations in electrical resistance of archaeological materials and surrounding sediments to identify surface anomalies like hearths, filled excavations, and stone walls. A set of probes sends electrical currents into the ground, while another set measures the resulting voltage to detect these anomalies.

What is "Magnetometry"?

Measures relative magnetism of objects buried beneath the ground surface. Used to locate fired clay objects such as pottery, fire pits, and kilns. Surveys map irregularities in the magnetic field.

What is "Ground Penetrating Radar"?

Uses electromagnetic signals to detect subsurface anomalies like building foundations, tombs, and grave shafts. It sends pulses into the soil, and the reflected signals are picked up by receivers. The depth of an object is determined by measuring how long it takes for the signal to return to the surface.

What are the steps of excavating a site?

1) Establish a datum (a fixed permanent reference point).

2) Create a Grid.

3) Carefully record the location of all materials encountered.

4) The most time-consuming stage is artifact analysis and preparation of the site report.

What is "Stratigraphy"?

The study of how different layers of sediments and soils, artifacts and fossils are laid down in the successive deposits or strata.

What does "The Law of Superposition" suggest?

The idea that older layers are at an archaeological site are generally deeper or lower than more recent layers.

What is "Spatial Context"?

Understanding the intricate web of relationships between those locations and the people who interact with them.

What is "Primary Refuse"?

Refers to archaeological materials left at the place they were used or produced.

What is "Secondary Refuse"?

Refers to archaeological materials removed from the place they were originally used or produced to a designated refuse area (E.g. a garbage dump).

What is "Biases in Preservation"?

Differences in preservation create a bias in what is found on archaeological sites.

Explain "Site Formation Processes".

A combination of cultural and environmental factors that contribute to the formation of archaeological sites.

What is "Taphonomy"?

How materials become part of the paleontological or archaeological record.

What characteristics are included when analyzing Human and Pre Human Skeletal Remains?

- Sex

- Age at Death

- Geographic Origin

- Pathology, Diet, and Disease

How can one tell the Sex of the Skeleton?

There are certain characteristics that give sign of the skeleton's sex. Examples would be angles of the pelvis, pubic arch of the female being much wider, and the male's skull shape of the chin is much larger and bonier.

What is "Isotope Analysis"?

Strontium Isotope Analysis reveals information about geographic origin and migration patterns. The strontium located in the tooth enamel is examined, where an isotope signature unique to where the person was originally can be found.

How can "Genetics" be used to locate the geographic origin?

Mitochondrial DNA and Nuclear DNA have certain haplotypes linked to particular regions.

What is "Paleopathology"?

Study of pathological conditions in ancient remains, includes ancient diseases, trauma, and dietary deficiency.

What is "Enamel Hypoplasia"?

Horizontal bands that form in tooth enamel, may be an indication of childhood disease or malnutrition.

What can injuries tell you about skeletal remains?

One may find injuries that can provide information about predators and lifestyle (E.g. an outer layer of abnormal bone on a female's thigh shows evidence of bleeding just before death).

What methods are there for determining the age of artifacts and fossils?

There are direct and indirect methods of determining the age of artifacts and fossils.

What is "Direct Dating"?

Applies dating techniques, as the name suggests, directly on the object itself.

What is "Indirect Dating"?

The age of an object is obtained by dating something directly associated with it.

What is "Relative Dating"?

Reveals whether an object is older or younger than another.

What is "Absolute Dating"?

- Provides an actual age (often with a (+&-) margin of error).

- Absolute chronologies are stated in terms of calendar years.

What are the "Radioactive Dating Methods"?

Techniques that measure the rate at which certain radioactive isotopes disintegrate.

What does the term "Half-Life" mean?

The time in which one half the amount of a radioactive isotope is converted chemically.

How does "Potassium-Argon" and "Argon-Argon Dating" work?

- These absolute dating methods are chronometric dating methods based on radiometric decay.

- Measures amount of Argon 40 buildup in volcanic rock.

- Radioactive potassium has a half-life of 1.25 billion years.

- This is useful for dating early hominin sites.

What is "Radiocarbon Dating"?

- Method for dating organic material up to 50 000 years old.

- Measures the decay of a radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon 14 (Has a half-life of 5 730).

What is the "Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)"?

A method of radiocarbon dating that allows much smaller samples to be dated.

What is "Dendrochonology"?

- Tree ring dating is used to determine the age of wood samples by examining annual growth rings.

- Has been used to asses the accuracy of radiocarbon dating.

- Different regions have different aging sequences.

What is "Luminescence Dating"?

- An ABSOLUTE dating method that measures the amount of energy an object has accumulated during its existence.

- Scientists use laser light or heat to release this energy as light. Can determine the age of an object through the amount of light.

What is "Experimental Archaeology"?

Research that attempts to replicate ancient technologies and construction procedures to test hypotheses about past activities.

Give examples of "Primates".

Humans are members of the order primates along with apes, monkeys, and prosimians.

What are some characteristics traits of Primates?

- Grasping hands and feet.

- Forward facing eyes.

- Rotating forearm.

- Relatively larger brain, Olfactory bulbs, and Stereoscopic Vision.

What is "Phylogeny"?

The evolutionary history of a species.

When did the first animals that possess primate characteristics appear in the fossil record?

About 65 million years ago.

What is considered to some as the earliest primate?

The Purgatorius.

When did the fossils with monkey-like characteristics appear?

Between 30 to 40 million years ago.

When did the fossils with apelike characteristics appear?

About 20 million years ago.

What is a Hominid?

A hominid is any creature believed to be in the direct human lineage.

What are some characteristics of a Hominid?

- Bipedalism (defining characteristic).

- Vertebral Column (Upright walkers has subtle 'S' shaped curve while quadrupeds have a more 'C' shaped).

- The lumbar are larger.

- In skull, the foramen magnum is positioned further forward on the base of the skulll.

- In humans, wider and broader pelvis shape.

- Legs of humans have the femur coming straight out the pelvis.

What unique features do human feet have compared to other species?

- Humans no longer have the deviated big toe, rather simply aligned toes instead.

- Humans have an arch in their feet.

- Humans have more robust, stronger bones in the feet and are tied together by ligaments.

What are the characteristics of Sahelanthropus Tchadensis?

- 7 MYA

- 380 (Monkey)

- Earliest Hominin

- Thicker tooth enamel than expected.

- Forward position of foramen magnum suggest it is an upright walker.

What are the characteristics of Orrorin Tugenensis?

- Dates 5.6 to 6 mya

- Location: Western Kenya

- Morphology of the femurs, in particular the femoral neck, reveals adaptations to bipedalism

What are the characteristics of Ardipithecus Ramidus?

- Dates 4.4 mya

- Found in Ethiopia

- 300 to 350cc (Monkey)

- Skeleton indicates bipedalism.

- Long curved fingers and grasping big toe indicate ability to climb.

What are Australopithecines?

- Diverse group of hominins that lived 4.2 and 1.8 million years ago.

- Small brains, prognathic face (lower jaw juts out), large teeth & jaw.

- Australopithecines are bipedal but retain climbing abilities.

What are the characteristics of the Australopithecus Anamensis?

- 4.3 to 3.8 mya

- East Africa

- 365 cc (monki)

- Concave articular surface of tibia (bipedal locomotion)

Prognathic face.

What are the characteristics of Australopithecus Afarensis?

- 4 - 3 mya

- East Africa

- 450CC

- Relatively prognathic, sagittal crest, flat cranial base, u shaped, shallow pallet. Big teeth

Displays sexual dimorphism (male/female size difference).

What is a derived trait?

Refers to a feature that is present in a lineage but absent in the last common ancestor.

What is a primitive trait?

Refers to a feature that is inherited from the common ancestor.

What was found in Hadar, Ethiopia?

- "Lucy" remarkably complete skeleton.

- "First Family" 13 well-preserved individuals.

- 3.2 MYA.

What was found in the Dikika Region - Ethiopia?

A remarkably complete child that lived 3.3 MYA was discovered from this site.

What was found in Laetoli, Tanzania?

- Footprints and many hominin fossils recovered from this site.

- 3.6 MYA.

What are the characteristics of Australopithecus Africanus?

- 3-2 MYA

- South Africa

- 400-500cc (Monkey)

What are the Australopitchecus Africanus Important Sites?

- Taung, South Africa, Taung Child.

- Sterkfontein, South Africa, Mrs. Ples.

What is the Robust Australopithecines?

- Classified as Genus Paranthropus.

- Dates - 2.5 to 1 mya

- Location - East Africa and South Africa.

- Cranial Capacity - About 400 to 600 cc.

- Massive jaws. Wide cheek bones, and broad dish-shaped faces.

- Exhibit megadontia (enlargement of teeth), a broad, flaring zygomatic region, and large sagittal crest.

What is Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania?

- Important hominin site.

- Serengeti plain of northern tanzania.

- Exposes two million years of the earth's history.

What are trends in Hominin Evolution?

- Bipedalism.

- Expansion of the brain.

- Reduction of the face, teeth, and jaws.

How many years ago marked the emergence of the genus Homo?

2.8 million years ago. Partial lower jaw was identified in Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia, 2015.

What are characteristics of Homo Habilis?

- 2.4 to 1.4 mya

- 500 - 800 cc

- Postcranial skeleton similar to Australopithecus.

- Exhbits Larger brain, Smaller teeth and jaws, Less prognathic face, and Presence of material culture.

What did scientist notice when comparing Homo Habilis to Australopithecines?

- Larger brain.

- Smaller teeth and jaws.

- Less prognathic face.

- Presence of material culture.

What are the Oldowan Tools?

- Manufactured by Homo Habilis

- Appears 2.5 mya

- Includes hammer stones, choppers and flakes

- Manufactured by percussion flaking

What is Homo Erectus?

- The first hominin that begins to form the look of a modern human (very large brow ridges).

- 1.9 MYA.

- Larger body, uniquely shaped skull and larger brain.

- 800 - 1200 cc.

- First hominin to leave africa.

- African and georgian forms are often classified as homo ergaster.

- Sagittal keel, superorbital torus, occipital torus, no chin

Characteristics of Homo Ergaster in Africa

- 1.9 mya

- Kenya, Tanzania

Characteristics of Homo Ergaster in Europe

- Dmanisi, Georgia.

- Dates to 1.8 MYA.

Characteristics of Homo Ergaster in Java, Indonesia

- Recovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891

- Initially classified as Pithecanthropus Erectus but now Homo erectus

- 1.6-1.75mya