Kronstadt revolt/NEP/End of democratic centralism

118 separate revolts in February

Early 1921- Widespread workers strikes in Moscow and Petrograd, peasant revolts in Tambov province and Ukraine lasted for months

Cheka reported this

Kronstadt naval base

Kotlin island in Gulf of Finland 25km west from Petrograd- when sea frozen in winter possible to walk over

Sailors were considered among the most loyal + dependable soldiers the Bolsheviks had

March 1921 15000 sailors

In the base- rose up in revolt against Lenin’s government. Threat to regime as once ice thawed base would be impossible to take, ships could threaten Petrograd, moral dilemma- the most loyal followers had turned on the regime

Demands of sailors

Immediate end to grain detachments, right of peasants to dispose of their grain as they saw fit, end to roadblock detachment- peasants right to bring food into the city (anger at war communism)

Claimed Bolshevik regime had moved away from ideals of revolution- called for free elections to the soviet- ‘Soviets without Bolsheviks’

50000 red army troops

Trotsky ordered to attack Kronstadt across the ice- took 10 days for the base to fall

10,000 red army and 5,00 Kronstadt revels

Killed in the revolt- once Cheka troops gained entry to base a further 2329 soldiers executed and 6459 sent to labour camps

Lesson from Kronstadt

That the party would take any action to cling on to power- Lenin realised there had to be a change in policy direction → NEP

10th party congress

8-16th March 1921

Lenin wanted to ease pressures + liberalise economic sphere but not political sphere

Theme- ‘unity and cohesion in the ranks of the party’

Lenin believed factionalism was harmful and impermissible as it could be used by counter-revolutionary forces to undermine the party

Worker’s opposition

Led by Alexandra Kollontai and Alexander Shiyapnikkov- demanded relaxation in political and economic life- crisis had passed so there should be a return to democracy within the working class- decentralise power to working class groups- trade unions etc

Denounced at the congress- decrees were passed that showed the civil war trend for party discipline would be enhanced, not weakened

“the remaining elements of pluralism within the party were swept away”

Martin Sixsmith, 2011 on factionalism ban

16% of 1912 level

Industrial output in 1921

Fell 50%

Petrograd birth rate, death rate had increased fourfold

“The (NEP) is only a temporary deviation, a tactical retreat.”

Zinoviev on NEP

NEP

Grain requisitioning system ended, peasants would now pay a tax ‘in kind’, would hand over a proportion of their produce to the state (less than demanded in w.c.)

famine ravaged areas let off payment for 12 months

Once tax had been paid peasants were allowed to sell any surplus produce on the open market

Aim- to alleviate desperate food situation- encouraging peasant grain output+ for them to make a profit → use to buy goods from cities to stimulate urban economy

Ban on private trade ended

Privately owned shops reopened, end to rationing

‘Money economy’ reappeared- new currency backed by gold, cash wages, inflation controlled

Small business reopened, workshops + small factories allowed- peasants would not sell grain if nothing to buy with income

‘The commanding heights’

-Lenin

State maintained control of major heavy industries- coal, steel, transport; banks owned and run by gov

Factories run by trusts that were responsible for buying materials and paying workers, state would not bail out poorly ran enterprises

Strict military measures that had governed workforce removed

Starvation + famine receded

Food flowed into cities in short time, shops + restaurants reopen

Howeverid not recede until after Lenin had been forced to accept relief aid from the US

Prodrazverstka system abolished

Peasant opposition to regime ended- they only wanted to own their land and to be left alone to work on it- under the NEP they got this wish

Downsides of NEP

Corruption, speculation, conspicuous consumption were not goals of Soviet society- much of private train fell into the hands of ‘NEPmen’

NEPmen

Traders who roamed from village to village buying surplus produce to sell in the marketplace, started making big profits

Property speculation

Reappeared- gov officials could be bribed if the price was right

Increase in crime

Moscow local authorities received most of its revenue from taxes levied on gambling clubs

Industrial production rose sevenfold

Great growth in certain areas- coal production tripled between 1920-1926

Grain harvest almost doubled

However most areas of economic endeavour still had not yet reached their 1913 levels

End of NEP

Lenin was always unhappy about partial return to capitalism- considered unpalatable but necessary in the short term and would not last forever.

Revolutions did not break out across Europe as Lenin + Trotsky expected- Soviet Union was alone

Modernisation + Industrialisation needed- NEP was not creating necessary capital that was essential for industrial development

Revitalised economy+ improved living standards but there were in-built restraints that meant long-term economic growth was impossible

On Party Unity

Resolution- Ban on factionalism imposed at the 10th party congress

New party apparatus

Creation of 3 new bodies- growth in party membership+ control of empire necessitated this

1. Politburo- Political bureau, made key decisions

2. Orgburo- Organisation bureau, overseeing party efficiency

3. Secretariat- responsible for record-keeping, allocating jobs and membership

Secretariat would become most important- appointed local party officials who had authority over local members

Nomenklatura

Lists drawn up by Central Committee+ local provincial committees of key gov admin positions to be filled- they soon had the right to determine who was appointed to them

Established 1925, 5500 designated party + gov posts listed- holders of these posts would only be appointed by central party bodies, overt loyalty wanted more than expertise

Politburo

7-9 people, soon took precedence over Sovnarkom and Central committee as the key decision making body

Party more centralised and hierarchical

USSR

Established end of 1922

Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics
Republics never really free to govern themselves- regarded as regional branches of Communist Party - tried to establish idea of brotherhood of different ethnic groups (to avoid idea that republics were similar at all to tsarist empire/ avoid revolts)

1921-1923

Purges of party membership carried out by bureaucracy- expulsion of 25% of party members (membership had changed due to war as newcomers were mainly peasants, few had knowledge of Marx and only joined to improve their life chances- proletariat base lost)

“The NEP was a strategic retreat, a breathing space during which the regime could recover from the ravages of war and revolution.”

O. Figes 1996