6) Behavioral Sciences

Absolute poverty

Poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.

Accommodation

Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control.

Achieved status

A status gained as a result of direct, individual action.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

Actor-observer bias

The tendency to make situational attributions about the self, but dispositional attributions about others, regarding similar behaviors.

Adaptation

In perception, a decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure; in learning, the process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation.

Adaptive value

The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species.

Affect

The experience and display of emotion. Can be described as a scale, with both positive and negative affect having separate scales.

Afferent neuron

Sensory neurons which transmit information to the brain from the body in response to sensory input.

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age.

Agent of Socialization

Any part of society that is important when learning social norms and values.

Aggression

A behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal.

Agnosia

The loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though typically just one of the three.

Alcohol myopia

The inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication.

Alertness

State of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment; nearly synonymous with arousal.

Algorithm

A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Aligning actions

An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.

Alter-casting

An impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person.

Altruism

A form of helping behavior in which people's intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to themselves.

Alzheimer's disease

Degenerative brain disorder that is characterized by dementia and memory loss. Neurofibrillary tangles and β-amyloid plaques are phenomena found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.

Amphetamine

A central nervous system stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain.

Amygdala

A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion, especially fear.

Anomie

A state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.

Anterograde amnesia

Form of memory loss in which new long-term memories cannot be established.

Anxiety disorders

Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagined events that can impair physical and psychological health.

Aphasia

Deficit of language production or comprehension.

Appraisal model

A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.

Archetype

In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is a part of the collective unconsciousness.

Arcuate fasciculus

A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area (language comprehension) with Broca's area (motor function of speech).

Arousal

A psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness.

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson law.

Ascribed status

A status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex.

Assimilation

In psychology, the process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata; in sociology, the process by which the behavior and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group.

Associative learning

The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; examples include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Attachment

An emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver. The four main attachment styles are: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized.

Attitude

A tendency toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation.

Attribute substitution

A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception.

Attribution theory

A theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior.

Auditory cortex

Region of the temporal lobe devoted to sound processing.

Auditory pathway

After entering the brain, sound is processed by several regions, including the MGN, auditory cortex, superior olive, and inferior colliculus.

Authentic self

Who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes.

Automatic processing

The brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time.

Autonomic nervous system

The involuntary branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion.

Autonomy

The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare.

Availability heuristic

A shortcut in decision making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject.

Avoidance learning

A form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen.

Babbling

Precursor to language known to spontaneously occur in children.

Back stage

In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirements and not in front of the audience; back stage behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience.

Barbiturate

A drug that acts as a central nervous system depressant; often used for anxiety, for insomnia, and as an antiseizure medication.

Basal ganglia

A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord.

Base-rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information when making a decision.

Basic model

First established by Charles Darwin, a theory that states that emotional expression involves a number of systems: facial expression as well as behavioral and physical responses; claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures.

Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner's theory that all behaviors are conditioned. Behaviorism can be applied across many bodies of psychological thought, including theories of development, of identity, and of personality.

Belief

An acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists.

Belief perseverance

The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Beneficence

The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest.

Benzodiazepine

A central nervous system depressant that is often used to reduce anxiety or promote sleep.

Biomedical approach

An approach to psychological disorders that considers only pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptom alleviation.

Biopsychosocial approach

An approach to psychological disorders that considers conditions and treatments to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes. Treatment under this approach includes both direct and indirect therapy.

Bipolar disorders

Class of mood disorders characterized by both depression and mania.

Birth rate

The number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of births per 1000 people per year.

Bisexual

A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of multiple sexes.

Bottom-up processing

Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection in response to sensory stimuli.

Brainstem

The most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communication between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain.

Broca's aphasia

Loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in intact understanding with an inability to correctly produce spoken language.

Broca's area

A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech.

Bureaucracy

A formal organization with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing work among a number of bureaus.

Bystander effect

The observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need.

Cannon

Bard theory-A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced.

Cataplexy

Loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.

Catatonia

Disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movements or stillness.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebellum

A portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements.

Cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for complex perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive processes.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

An aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest; produced by cells lining the ventricles of the brain.

Cerebrum

A portion of the brain that contains the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia.

Characteristic institution

The social structure or institution about which societies are organized.

Chemoreceptors

Sensory neurons that respond to chemical stimuli.

Choice shift

This term is analogous to group polarization, but describes the behavior change of the group as a whole rather than the individual.

Circadian rhythm

The alignment of physiological processes with the 24-hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system.

Circular reaction

A repetitive action that achieves a desired response; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage.

Class consciousness

In Marxist theory, the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action.

Classical conditioning

A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Cocaine

Drug that decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, with effects similar to amphetamines.

Cognition

The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experiences, and the senses; how we think and respond to the world.

Cognitive appraisal

The subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress, consisting of both an initial primary appraisal and a potential secondary appraisal if a threat is revealed during primary appraisal.

Cognitive development

The development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the life span.

Cognitive dissonance

The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions.

Cognitive reassociation model

A model of aggression which states that we are more likely to respond aggressively when experiencing negative emotions.

Collective unconscious

In Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry.

Colliculi

Two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes; the superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory input.

Compliance

A change of behavior of an individual at the request of another.

Concordance rates

In twin studies, the presence of a trait in both twins.

Conditioned response

In classical conditioning paradigms, the reflexive response caused by a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning paradigms, this is an initially neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to train a behavioral response, rendering the previously neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus.

Conduction aphasia

A speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus.

Confirmation bias

A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis and ignores evidence against it.

Conflict theory

A theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order.