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Why does a cell divide rather than continuing to grow?
the larger a cell becomes, the less efficient it is in moving materials across its cell membrane and places increasing demand on its own DNA
to stay alive, a cell must…
allow food, oxygen, and water to enter and waste products to leave through its cell membrane
the rate at which materials enter and leave the cell depends on the cell’s
surface area
surface area and volume _______ increase at the same rate
do not
equation of surface area
l * w * number of sides
equation of volume
l * w * h
what problem does the decrease in surface area cause for a growing cell? how is this problem solved?
causes a decrease in relative amount of cell membrane available which creates serious problems, solved by using unusual shapes or structures to maintain the ratio
if a cell were to get too large
it would be more difficult to get sufficient amounts of oxygen and nutrients in and waste products out
living cells store critical information in a molecule known as
DNA
what is use of DNA as a cell grows?
the critical information inside DNA is used to build molecules needed for cell growth
as a cell increases in size, what happens to its DNA?
remains the same so it needs to be duplicated and divided between two new cells
cell division
process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells
before cell division can occur, what needs to happen?
DNA has to be copied or replicated
what problem does cell division solve and how?
the problem of increasing size by reducing cell volume resulting in an increase in the ratio of surface area to volume for each daughter cell allowing for more efficient exchange of materials
for many single celled organisms, _______ is their only form of reproduction
cell division
aesexual reproduction
production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent
sexual reproduction
production of offspring through the fusion of two reproductive cells formed by each of two parents, inheriting some of their genetic information from each parent
pros and cons of asexual reproduction
pros: reproduce quickly
cons: lack of genetic diversity
pros and cons of sexual reproduction
pros: genetic diversity which increases chances of survival during environment changes
cons: relies on finding a mate
chromosomes
packages of DNA in which genetic information is bundled
where is all or most of a cell’s genetic information found in prokaryotes?
in a singular DNA chromosome in the cytoplasm
chromatin
complex of DNA tightly bound to proteins known as histones in eukaryotes
nucleosomes
beadlike structures formed when DNA tightly coils around histone molecules
why do cells package their DNA into chromosomes?
to ensure equal division of DNA when a cell divides
chromosomes are precisely separated into two ________ during cell division
daughter cells
cell cycle
series of events during which a cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form two daughter cells
after the cell cycle, each daughter cell moves into a new cell cycle of ….
activity, growth, and division
the process of cell division in prokaryotes is a form of asexual reproduction known as’
binary fission
what happens during prokaryotic cell cycle?
chromosome is replicated, two DNA molecules attach to different regions of cell membrane, a network of fibers stretch from one side of the cell to the other and the cell is pinched inward, dividing the cytoplasm and chromosomes between two newly formed cells
four stages of the eukaryotic cell cycle
G1: cell growth, S: DNA replication, G2: preparing for cell division, M Phase: cell division
interphase
the in between period of growth (consists of the phases G1, S, and G2)
what happens in the G1 phase?
cells increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles
what happens in the S phase?
new DNA is synthesised as the chromosomes are replicated
what happens in the G2 phase?
many of the organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced
what happens in the M phase?
two daughter cells are produced in two stages
what are the two stages of the M phase?
mitosis and cytokinesis
mitosis
division of the cell nucleus
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm
four stages of mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
prophase
genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the duplicated chromosomes become visible
during prophase, each duplicated chromosome condenses to appear as two thick strands known as
sister chromatids
sister chromatids are attached at a point called
centromere
centrioles
tiny paired structures located in the centrosome where spindle fibers extend from
plant cells lack
centrioles
metaphase
centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes line up across the center of the cell and spindle fibers connect the centromere of each chromosome to the poles of the spindle
anaphase
chromosomes separate and move along spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell, microtubules disassemble as chromosomes move toward the poles of the mitotic spindle
telophase
chromosomes begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin and a nuclear envelope reforms around each cluster of chromosomes and gradually a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus
cytokinesis completes the process of cell division by
dividing one cell into two
cytokinesis in animal cells
cell membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched into two nearly equal parts each containing its own nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles
cytokinesis in plant cells
cell plate forms halfway between the divided nuclei and develops into cell membranes that separate the two daughter cells (since rigid cell wall is not flexible enough to be drawn inward)
what happens during the healing process?
cells divide rapidly until they come in contact with other cells
The cell cycle is controlled by…
Regulatory proteins both inside and outside the cell
Internal regulatory proteins
Respond to events inside the cell and act as checkpoints that allow the cell cycle to proceed
External regulators proteins
Proteins that respond to outside events that direct cells to speed up or slow down the cell cycle; prevent excessive cell growth and keeps body tissues from disrupting one another
Growth factors
An important group of external regulatory proteins that stimulate the growth and division of cells
cyclin
a protein that forms mitotic spindle when injected into a non dividing cell; seems to regulate the cell cycle
what happens to the cyclin concentrations during the cell cycle?
the levels increase during the G1, S, and G2 phases and decrease during the M phase
apoptosis
a process of programmed cell death
what happens during apoptosis?
cell and its chromatin shrink then parts of the cell’s membranes break off; neighbouring cells clean up the cell’s remains
why is apoptosis important?
it shapes the stucture of tissues and organs
what happens when apoptosis does not occur?
a number of diseases can result (ex: AIDS, Parkinsons)
cancer
disorder in which body cells lose the ability to control growth
why do cancer cells grow uncontrollably?
they do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most cells; the cell cycle is then disrupted and cells grow and divide uncontrollably
tumor
a mass formed from cancer cells
what happens as cancer cells spread to surrounding healthy tissue?
they absorb the nutrients needed by other cells, block nerve connections, and prevent the organs they invade from functioning properly
what causes cancer?
defects in the genes that regulate cell growth and division
what do all cancers have in common?
the control over the cell cycle has broken down (some cancer cells stop responding to external growth regulators and others fail to produce internal regulators)
why are cancer cells so dangerous?
because of their tendency to spread once they enter the bloodstream or lymph vessels and can then make tumors in other parts of the body
metastasis
the process of cancer moving into other parts of the body and forming secondary tumors
what are the treatments for cancer?
surgical removal of tumors, carefully targeted beams of radiation, or chemotherapy
what is the problem with chemotherapy?
it can interfere with cell division in normal healthy cells
embryo
a developmental stage from which the adult organisms gradually produced
what happens during the developmental process?
cells become more and more different from one another and specialized for particular functions
differentiation
process by which cells become specialized into one of many distinct cell types
when can an adult cell no longer turn into other types of cells?
when differentiation is completely
zygote
fertilised egg from which all the differentiated cell types are formed; totipotent
totipotent
able to develop into any type of cell in the body
blastocyst
hollow ball of cells with a cluster of cells inside (the inner cell mass); pluripotent
pluripotent
able to develop into any of the body’s cell types but cannot from tissues around the embryo
stem cells
unspecialised cells from which differentiated cells develop
adult stem cells
produce new cells for tissues like blood and skin that have a limited life span and need to be replaced; mutltipotent
multipotent
can form differentiated cells only when replacing cells in tissues where they are found
how do embryonic and adult stem cells differ?
embryonic stem cells are more versatile since they pluripotent while adult stem cells are multipoint
what are the ethical issues with stem cell research?
to study embryonic stem cells an embryo needs be destroyed
why is stem cell research important?
might be used in the future to repair the damage caused by a heart attack
what are iPS cells?
cells that closely resemble embryonic stem cells
how are iPS cells produced?
under a set of precise conditions that can reprogram an entire cell and put it back into an embryonic state
regenerative medicine
makes use of stem cells to repair or replace damaged cells and tissues
how is regenerative medicine useful?
the produced differentiated cells can repair or replace damaged or diseased cells, tissues or even whole organs
what are the risks of regenerative medicine?
transplanted cells may behave in unpredicted ways and could differentiate into unwanted cell types, spread beyond the site of the transplant, or grow uncontrollably into a tutor