Psy

5.1 what is sensation?

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

5.1 what are sensory receptors?

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli; detect the same information any sighted person's would, and they transmit that information to the brain

5.1 what is perception?

the processes by which her brain organizes and interprets the sensory input; , transforming it into meaningful objects and events.

5.1 perception helps you recognize what?

hair, walk, voice, or peculiar build, just not from their face

5.1 true or false the sensory and perpetual process work together in helping us decipher the world around us.

true

5.1 what is bottom- up processing

enables your sensory systems to detect the lines, angles, and colors that form the images.

5.1 what is top- down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations; you interpret what your senses detect.

5.1 what is transduction

changing one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy (such as sights, sounds, and smells) into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

5.1 What do all your senses do?

receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells,
transform that stimulation into neural impulses, and
deliver the neural information to your brain.

5.1 what is the distinction between sensation and perception?

-the sensation is a bottom-up process in which your sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimuli
-perception is a top-down process by which your brain creates meaningful organization

5.1 what is absolute threshold?

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

5.1 what is subliminal?

stimuli you cannot detect 50% of the time; presenting something below a person's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

5.1 what is the difference threshold?

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).

5.1 what is Weber's law?

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

5.1 what is sensory adaption?

reduced sensitivity in response to constant stimulation. when exposed to unchanging stimuli we become less aware of it

5.1 what is perpetual set?

mental tendencies and assumptions that set us up to perceive one thing and not another; a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affects, top-down, what we hear, taste, feel, and see

5.1 our immediate context, and the motivation and emotion we bring to a situation affect what

interpretations

5.1 \_________________ helps form our perceptions, so it's not surprising that people's varying cultures may cause them to view things differently, as in FIGURE 5.6.
How is the woman in FIGURE 5.7 feeling?

cultural context

5.1 what give us energy as we work toward a goal.

motives

5.1 how can motivation bias our interpretations of neural stimuli?

Desirable objects, such as a water bottle viewed by a thirsty person, seem closer than they really are (Balcetis & Dunning, 2010).
Closeness can increase desire itself. Straight men, for example, find women who are physically closer more desirable than those who are further away (Shin et al., 2019).
A softball appears bigger when players are hitting well (Witt & Proffitt, 2005).

5.1 how can emotion affect our perception

Hearing sad music can tilt the mind toward hearing a spoken word as mourningrather than morning, as die rather than dye, as pain rather than pane (Halberstadt et al., 1995).
Hearing cheerful music, such as Beyoncé's "Single Ladies," speeds identification of happy emotion words (Tay & Ng, 2019).
Worry about a panic attack (as with panic disorder) leads people to misperceive common physical sensations (heart pounding, breathlessness) as a panic attack (Maisto et al., 2021).

5.2 what receive light energy and transduce (transform) it into neural messages that your brain — in one of life's greatest wonders — then creates into what you consciously see

your eyes

5.2 what we see was visible light is only what?

a thin slice of the wide spectrum of electromagnetic energy shown

5.2 light image

inserted image

5.2 what does light travel in?

waves and it shapes what we see

5.2 what is the lights wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next.

5.2 wavelength determines what?

hue

5.2 what is hue

the color we experience

5.2 what determines the intensity of light

wave's amplitude, or height

5.2 what is lights intensity?

the amount of energy the wave contains.

5.2 intensity influences \____________________

brightness

5.2 physical properties of light waves picture

inserted picture

5.2 what is the iris?

the doughnut-shaped ring of muscle that controls the size of your pupil.

5.2 iris scanning technology can determine what

your identity

5.2 if your eyes is exposed to brighness your pupils are \_______________ when exposed to darkness your pupils \______________.

shrink
dilate

5.2 your iris can also determine what two things

thoughts and emotions

5.2 what is the iris main job

controlling the amount of light entering your eye

5.2 where does light enter the eye

the cornea; After passing through your pupil, light hits the transparent lens in your eye

5.2 what is your retina?

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye. Contains the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

5.2 the eye image

inserted image

5.2 true or false The retina doesn't "see" a whole image. Rather, its millions of receptor cells take an image apart and rebuild it

true

5.2 the eye to brain pathway explained

First, you would thread your way through your retina's sparse outer layer of cells. Then, reaching the very back of the eye, you would meet the retina's buried photoreceptor cells, the rods and cones (FIGURE 5.12). There, you would see the light energy trigger chemical changes. That chemical reaction would spark neural signals in the nearby bipolar cells. You could then watch the bipolar cells activate neighboring ganglion cells, whose axons twine together like strands of a rope to form the optic nerve. After a momentary stopover at the thalamus, the information will fly on to the final destination, your visual cortex, in the occipital lobe at the back of your brain.

5.2 what are rods?

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. Rods are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

5.2 what are cones?

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina, and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

5.2 what is the optic nerve?

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain; the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

5.2 what is the eyes blind spot?

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; this part of the retina is "blind" because it has no receptor cells.

5.2 how do cones work in your eye

Many cones have their own hotline to the brain. One cone transmits its message to a single bipolar cell, which relays it to the visual cortex. These direct connections preserve the cones' precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail. Cones can detect white and enable you to perceive color — but not at night

5.2 how do rods work in your eye?

rods reside in the retina's periphery and remain sensitive in dim light. If cones are soloists, rods perform as a chorus. They enable black-and-white vision. Rods have no hotlines to the brain. Several rods pool their faint energy output and funnel it onto a single bipolar cell, which sends the combined message to your brain

5.2 what two people reasoned that the eye must have three types of receptors, one for each color.

Young and von Helmholtz

5.2 what is the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue. When stimulated in combination, these receptors can produce the perception of any color.

5.2 Hering proposed that color vision must involve two additional processes what were they?

one responsible for red-versus-green perception, and the other for blue-versus-yellow perception.

5.2 what is the opponent process theroy?

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are turned "on" by green and turned "off" by red; others are turned on by red and off by green.

5.2 what does color vision depend on

Color vision depends on three sets of opposing retinal processes — red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black

5.2 how does opponent-process theory help us understand negative afterimages

First, you stared at green bars, which tired your green response.
Then you stared at a white area. White contains all colors, including red.
Because you had tired your green response, only the red part of the green-red pairing fired normally.

5.2 who discovered our visual processing system takes images apart and later reassembles them.

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

5.2 what are feature detectors?

nerve cells in the occipital lobe's visual cortex that respond to a scene's specific features — to particular edges, lines, angles, and movements.

5.2 what does your temporal lobe do?

you to perceive faces and, thanks to a specialized neural network, to recognize them from many viewpoints

5.2 what is parallel processing?

your brain assigns different teams of nerve cells the separate tasks of simultaneously processing a scene's movement, form, depth, and color.

5.2 how do we organize sights that become meaningful perceptions?

organize visual sensations into a gestalt meaning, "form" or a "whole." As we look straight ahead, we cannot separate the perceived scene into our left and right fields of view (each as seen with one eye closed). Our conscious perception is, at every moment, one whole, seamless scene.

5.2 what is depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

5.2 what are binocular cues?

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

5.2 what is retinal disparity?

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.\`

5.2 what are monocular cues?

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

5.2 what is perpetual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

5.2 what is color constancy?

perceived color would remain constant

5.2 shape and size constancy explained

Thanks to shape constancy, we usually perceive the form of familiar objects, such as the door in FIGURE 5.26, as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them. Thanks to size constancy, we perceive an object as having an unchanging size even while our distance from it varies.

5.2 what Is perpetual adaptation?

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

5.3 what is auction

the sense of hearing (helps us adapt or survive)

5.3 The height, or amplitude, of sound waves determines their perceived what

loudness

5.3 frequency (the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time) determines the what?

pitch-a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

5.3 how do we measure sound intensity

by decibels

5.3 How does vibrating air trigger nerve impulses that your brain can decode as sounds?

The process begins when sound waves strike your eardrum, causing this tight membrane to vibrate (FIGURE 5.27a). In your middle ear, three tiny bones pick up the vibrations and transmit them to the cochlea, a snail-shaped tube in your inner ear.

5.3 parts of your ear picture

inserted picture

5.3 what is sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve. The most common form of hearing loss

5.3 what is conduction hearing loss?

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

5.3 what is a conchelar implant?

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

5.4 Our "sense of touch" is actually a mix of four basic and what distinct skin senses:

pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

5.4 how does pain work?

Our feeling of pain reflects both bottom-up sensations and top-down cognition. Pain is a biopsychosocial event

5.4 what do nociceptors detect?

which detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

5.4 what is the gate-control theory

spinal cord contains a "gate" that controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain

5.4 Pain is a product of our what

attention, our expectations, and our culture

5.4 But how does hypnosis work? Psychologists have proposed two explanations.

Social influence theory contends that hypnosis is a form of social influence — a by-product of normal social and mental processes (Lynn et al., 1990, 2015; Spanos & Coe, 1992). In this view, hypnotized people, like actors caught up in a role, begin to feel and behave in ways appropriate for "good hypnotic subjects." They may allow the hypnotist to direct their attention away from pain.
Dissociation theory proposes that hypnosis is a special dual-processing state of dissociation — a split between normal sensations and conscious awareness. Dissociation theory seeks to explain why, when no one is watching, previously hypnotized people may later carry out posthypnotic suggestions (Perugini et al., 1998). It also explains why people hypnotized for pain relief may show brain activity in areas that receive sensory information, but not in areas that normally process pain-related information (Rainville et al., 1997).

5.4 what reduces pain

distraction hypnosis and endorphins

5.4 what is gustation

our sense of taste

5.4 picture of different taste sensations

inserted picture

5.4 each bump on your tongue has how many taste buds

200 or more

5.4 what do proprioceptors, do

provide constant feedback to your brain.

5.4 what is kinesthesia

our movement sense—our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

5.4 what is our balance sense — our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

vestibular sense

5.4 summarizing the sense's picture

inserted picture

5.5 what is sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

5.5 what is embarrassing embodied cognition?

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

5.5 examples of embodied cognition

Judgments may mimic body sensations. Sitting at a wobbly desk and chair may make relationships seem less stable (Forest et al., 2015; Kille et al., 2013).
Hard chair, hard on crime. People who sat in a hard chair, compared with a soft chair, gave harsher punishments to criminals (M. Schaefer et al., 2018).
Upright is honorable. Chinese and American participants associated honor-related phrases ("maintains honor" and "respects me") with arrows pointing up (↑) and right (→) (Lin & Oyserman, 2021).

5.5 what is synesthesia

where one sort of sensation produces another

5.6 what is extrasensory perception (ESP

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

5.6 what are the esp claims?

telepathy: mind-to-mind communication.
clairvoyance: perceiving remote events, such as a house on fire across the country.
precognition: perceiving future events, such as an unexpected death in the next month.

5.6 what's is psychokinesis

mind moving matter

6.1 what are ways we learn

association- Our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence.

6.1 when do behaviors become a habit

66 days

6.1 what is classical conditioning

we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events