Sociocultural Approach (SL)

What are some basic assumptions about the sociocultural approach?

• Culture influences behaviour

• Human beings are social animals and we have a basic need to “belong”.

• Our behaviour is influenced by others, even when we believe that we are acting independently.

• Social context - that is, situational factors - play a key role in human behaviour.

• We have both an individual and a social self.

What is the universalist approach?

The universalist approach assumes that there are psychological processes shared throughout all human cultures.

What is the relativist approach?

The relativist approach assumes that the psychological processes of cultural groups are different and cannot be compared.

What is conformity?

Conformity refers to behaviour that goes along with social conventions, social norms, social standards and so on - it basically means going along with whatever society expects. Group norms, values, and beliefs influence the behaviour of individual group members through social identity processes and social influences from the in-group, or those people who are 'like us' (Turner and Reynolds 2011).These social and cultural norms, like how to dress or how to act, provide a kind of platform for conformity, by outlining how people should behave in particular situations. In-group members are generally more influential than out-group members.

What is the bystander effect?

Bystander interference/effect  = The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is for any one of them to provide help to a person in distress. A psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action when in the presence of a large group of people.

What is compliance?

Compliance is a form of social influence involving direct requests from one to another: one person or group explicitly asks (but doesn't command) another to act in a certain way. Compliance means acting in accordance with a request or demand.

What is the difference between compliance and conformity?

Conformity and compliance are both forms of social influence. The key difference is that compliance usually involves a request to behave in a particular way, while conformity is instead the result of real or imagined pressure to conform to norms.

What are some factors that affect obedience?

• Commands took responsibility away from the individual and on to the commander

• Legitimacy of authority increased obedience

• Graduating command severity increased Effectiveness when compared to immediate severity

• Increased distance between individual and the victim deferred responsibility, increasing obedience

What are some social factors that affect obedience?

• The closer the instructor to the recipient the greater their obedience

• Situational contacts impacts obedience levels

• One instructor contradicting the other massively reduces obedience

• Presence of another dissenting recipient decreases obedience

• Other factors impacting obedience; time period, social context, social group, culture.

What factors make people more susceptible to influence?

• Naive individuals are more susceptible

• Poor reflective skills increase susceptibility

• Impulsivity correlates with susceptibility

• Low self-awareness increases susceptibility

• Low IQ increases susceptibility

• High status decreases susceptibility

• Gender doesn't seem to affect susceptibility

• The very old and the very young appear more susceptible to influence than the middle aged

What is social identity theory?

Social identity is part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from their knowledge of their group memberships. It states that people’s concept of self-identity is derived, at least in part, from the groups they belong to.Social identity theory describes the circumstances under which social identity is formed and the ways social identity can influence behavior.

Who proposed the Social Identity Theory?

Tajfel and Turner (1979)

What 4 psychological mechanisms are in the original Social Identity Theory?

• Social categorization

• Social identification

• Social comparison

• Positive distinctiveness

What is social categorization?

• Social categorization is the process by which we identify which groups we belong to and which groups we do not. 

• The groups we belong to and identify with are referred to as our "in-groups." When referring to our in-group, we often use the words "we" and "us". 

• The groups that we do not belong to, are referred to as "out-groups." When referring to our out-groups, we often use the words "they" and "them."

What is social identification?

• Social identification takes place after deciding to belong to the group.  

• This is the process of adopting the norms of the group and taking on the characteristics of the group.

What is social comparison?

• After identifying one's in-group, individuals then engage in "social comparison" which is a means of justifying their group membership.

• This is done through Positive Distinctiveness  

What is positive distinctiveness?

We seek to achieve positive self-esteem by positively comparing our in-group to an out-group on some valued dimension (a trait that makes us distinct) to achieve positive distinctiveness. This could lead to conflict and aggressive behaviour because of prejudice and discrimination.

What is the self esteem hypothesis?

Self-esteem hypothesis: Humans have a natural desire to boost self-esteem. We want to view our in-group as better than the out-group to boost our self-esteem. This can affect of actions and lead to prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes.

What are the limitations of the social identity theory?

Research supporting SIT theory is limited.

• SIT assumes that a positive social identity is based on favourable intergroup comparisons. There should, therefore, be a positive correlation between strength of group identification and the amount of positive ingroup bias, but research shows only modest support for this (Yuki, 2003).

• SIT assumes that ingroup bias is driven by the desire to perceive one’s ingroup, and oneself, positively. There should, therefore, be a causal relationship between intergroup differentiation and self-esteem, i.e. positive intergroup differentiation should cause people to feel better about themselves when they judge or treat their ingroup better than their outgroup. Yuki (2003) has not supported this claim.

• SIT is a theory of how people make their ingroups different from and better than outgroups. Therefore, groups that find they are similar should be motivated to demonstrate intergroup differences. Yuki (2003) does not support this.

What is social cognitive theory?

• Developed mainly by Albert Bandura 

• Observational Learning: Behaviour is learned from the environment through the processes of modelling and reinforcement. The basic idea of the theory is that we do not need to experience everything personally in order to learn. We can learn by watching other people.

• Modeling involves learning through the observation of other people, which may lead to imitation (if the behaviour is to be imitated leads to desirable consequences).

What are the conditions required for social learning to take place?

• Attention: In order to learn, observers must attend to the modelled behaviour.

• Retention: In order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must be able to remember features of the behaviour.

• Reproduction: In order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behaviour. 

• Motivation: In order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must want to reproduce it and expect a certain outcome from the behaviour.

• Efficacy: You believe that we can reproduce the behavior and achieve the same positive outcomes as others. Self believe = Self-Efficacy

What factors affect the potential for social learning?

• The model stands out in contrast to other models

• The model's behaviour must be consistent.

• The model is liked and respected by the observer

• The observer perceives a similarity between him/herself and the model (member of in-group)

• The model’s behaviour is reinforced.

How can we evaluate social cognitive theory?

SCT is a broad and ill-defined theory of learning or behaviour-acquisition that is still evolving. It neglects the role of emotions and cognitive learning in explaining behaviour. SCT does not explain why some people replicate or mimic behaviour that has been modelled and some do not.

What are schemas?

• Schemas are cognitive frameworks generated from generalizations of repeated encounters with a given context or situation. 

• New information is processed according to how it fits into these mental structures, or rules.

What is a stereotype?

A stereotype is an exaggerated, often negative view of people who are not like us.

What is prejudice?

Prejudice is a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

What is discrimination?

Discrimination is the unjust or prejudiced treatment of different categories of people.

What is the cognitive miser theory?

Cognitive miser theory states that our brains prefer to use shortcuts when processing information, we want to use the least amount of cognitive effort.

What is overt prejudice?

Overt prejudice is explicitly stated prejudiced views. This prejudice is easy to measure and then change through education.

What is covert prejudice?

Covert prejudice is prejudice that you may not be aware of, they often present as automatic responses to situations. This prejudice is harder to observe and change.

What is correspondence bias?

Correspondence bias is the tendency to over-attribute a person’s behaviour to their personality (dispositional) factors and to under-attribute the extent to with external factors caused the behaviour. People who display correspondence bias tend to stereotype high-status groups as competent and low-status groups and incompetent.

What is illusory correlation?

Illusory correlation is a simple error of association: the incorrect conclusion that two events that occur at the same time are related. Unusual events are distinctive and so people notice them more than mundane, normal events.

How are in-groups and out-groups related to stereotypes?

SIT suggests that stereotypes are formed and shared because group members are motivated to strengthen their perceived similarities with their in-group and strengthen their differences with their out-group.

What is stereotype threat?

Stereotype threat is the fear that you will conform to the negative stereotype about the group you belong to. You go not have to believe in the stereotype for it to impact your behaviour. Just by being aware of the stereotype, it can impact your behaviour.

What are some strengths for stereotype theory?

• Stereotype threat has been supported by a substantial body of empirical research across a variety of contexts, including education, sports, and workplace performance.

• Stereotype threat has important implications for understanding real-world phenomena, such as the gender gap in STEM fields or the underrepresentation of certain racial and ethnic groups in academic and professional settings. By highlighting the impact of stereotypes on performance, stereotype threat research has contributed to efforts to address these disparities.

What are some limitations for stereotype theory?

• Stereotype threat may not occur in all situations or for all individuals. Certain factors, such as the perceived importance of the task or the presence of counter-stereotypical role models, can mitigate the effects of stereotype threat.

• Difficult to measure the effects of stereotype threat because of  individual differences, such as the strength of one's identification with the stereotyped group, the relevance of the stereotype to the task at hand, and situational factors. 

• Publication bias as the finding on studies on stereotype threat. Many studies have been published supporting the theory due to its “world-Changing Results”  

• There are a number of other studies, including meta-analysis, the provide inconclusive data in support of the theory

• There are ethical considerations associated with conducting research on stereotype threat, particularly in terms of potentially reinforcing or exacerbating stereotypes by bringing attention to them.

• While stereotype threat can have immediate effects on performance, the long-term consequences are less clear.

How does culture affect behaviour?

Culture affects judgements and decision making, including the extent to which the fundamental attribution error applies. Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) is the theory that people overstate dispositional factors in their successes and understate the role of situational factors. Evidence suggests that FAE is less powerful in some cultures.

What is surface culture?

Surface culture refers to the obvious or readily discernable differences between a person’s indigenous and host countries.

What is deep culture?

Deep culture refers to more profound cultural norms.

What is cultural dimensions and who proposed it?

Cultural dimensions are the values within a culture that influence behaviour and cognition. Hofstede argues that understanding cultural dimensions will help facilitate communication between cultures.

What are the cultural dimensions?

• power distance

• individualism vs collectivism

• masculinity vs femininity

• uncertainty avoidance

• long term vs short term orientation

• indulgence vs restraint

What is power distance?

Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful individuals accept inequality as the norm.

What are individualist societies?

Individualist societies are those in which people place the greatest focus on themselves and their immediate family and friends.

What are collectivist societies?

Collectivist societies are made up of people who place greater value on wider extended family groups from which they have great difficulty separating themselves.

What is the masculinity dimension?

The masculinity dimension refers to individual’s expectation that men will be assertive, ambitious, and competitive and to respect things that are big, strong, and fast.

What is uncertainty avoidance?

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which individuals are tolerant of uncertainty. Cultures with a strong tolerance of uncertainty are active, emotional, and tolerant. Cultures with low tolerance of uncertainty are less aggressive, more accepting of personal risk, and relatively intolerant.

What is long term vs short term orientation?

Long-term vs. short-term orientation: the connection to the past and attitude toward the future.  Short-term orientation means that traditions are kept. Long-term orientation has more of a focus on the future.

What is indulgence vs restraint?

Indulgence vs. restraint: Indulgent cultures allow people to enjoy life and have fun. Restrained cultures have stricter control through strict social norms. Indulgent cultures tend to believe that they are in control of their lives; restrained cultures are more fatalistic.

What is ecological fallacy?

When one looks at two different cultures, it should not be assumed that two members from two different cultures must be different from one another, or that a single member of a culture will always demonstrate the dimensions which are the norm of that culture.

What do individualist cultures value?

• Achievement

• uniqueness 

• Independence

• Freedom

• Speaking one's mind

• Self-actualized goals

• Self-reliance

• Privacy

What do collectivist cultures value?

• social harmony

• Tradition

• Interdependence

• Modesty

• Common fate

• Shared responsibility

• Advancing interest for the sake of the group

• Self as defined by group membership

• Privacy is not expected

What is enculturation?

Enculturation: is an umbrella term that encompasses all the possible ways that people might learn the cultural values, beliefs, norms and expectations of their heritage culture (the culture they are brought up in).

How does enculturation occur through direct instruction?

Enculturation occurs through direct instruction; teaching culture this way occurs because it is direct, deliberate, and effective.

How is culture acquired through social learning?

The social environment only exposes the culture’s new member to the object; the actual learning process is individual.

How can enculturation be learned through cultural expectations?

The new group member tries to learn the group’s norms by empathizing with or imagining another person’s perspective or point of view.

What is acculturation?

• Acculturation is the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups. At the individual level, it involves changes in a person's behaviour (Berry 2004). 

• Acculturation is often thought synonymous with assimilation. However, assimilation is technically one part of acculturation - they are not the same thing.

What are the 5 kinds of groups that may go through acculturation?

• indigenous peoples

• ethnocultural groups

• immigrants

• refugees

• asylum-seekers.

What is Sam and Berry’s (2010) framework for acculturation?

• two cultures come into contact with each other

• both cultures change to some degree

• individuals acculturate on a psychological level (through changes in cognition, behaviour, emotion, etc.)

• individuals adapt to the new culture, on psychological and sociocultural levels.

What are the 3 main areas of psychological change during acculturation?

• affective (or emotional) changes

• behavioural changes

• cognitive changes

What are the 4 types of acculturation strategies identified by Berry?

1. Integration: The individual maintains his/her own cultural identity while at the same time becomes a participant in the host culture. 

2. Assimilation: The individual gives up his/her own cultural identity and becomes absorbed into the host culture. 

3. Separation: The individual maintains his/her own cultural identity and rejects involvement with the host culture. 

4. Marginalization: The individual does not identify with or participate in either his/her own culture or the host culture.

What are the 4 types of acculturation strategies adopted by the host cultures?

1. Multiculturalism: The society values and fosters diversity

2. Melting Pot: The society seeks assimilation

3. Segregation: The society forces separation

4. Exclusion: The society imposes marginalization

How are acculturation strategies used based on attitudes or issues in this topic? What is considered to define the acculturation strategies used?

1. The degree to which individuals want to maintain their heritage culture and identity.

2. The degree to which individuals seek involvement with the new culture or larger society.

What is the acculturation strategy identified by LaFramboise (1993)?

Alteration refers to a strategy in which one moves back and forth between one’s own culture and the host culture depending on the situation. An individual is able to gain competence within 2 cultures without losing his or her cultural identity or having to choose one culture over the other.

What is acculturation stress?

The psychological impact of adaptation to a new culture. As with any type of stress, long term acculturative stress also may lead to reduced mental and physical health. Another term for acculturative stress is “culture shock.”

What are acculturation gaps?

• These are differences in understandings and values between parents and children as they go through the process of acculturation.

• This occurs when parents have a different acculturation strategy from their children (see Berry’s model).

What is reverse culture shock?

The feeling of surprise, disorientation, confusion, alienation or frustration experienced when people return to their home culture after living in another culture and finding that they do not fit in as they used to.

What are some protective factors against acculturation stress?

• Proficiency in English

•  Effective coping skills

•  Strong family structure

•  The amount of time spent in the USA

•  Bilinguals had low acculturative stress.

•  The preference for only speaking English is a predictor of high acculturative stress.

•  Negative treatment leads to acculturative stress.

•  Sharing values with one’s family lowers acculturative stress.

•  Those who were economically satisfied had lower acculturative stress.