Research Methods Quiz #1

Patient-Oriented Research

human subjects and helps improve understanding of diseases and disorders

Epidemiologic and Behavioral Studies

observational and describe patterns of diseases and disability

Qualitative Methods

measurement is based on subjective, narrative information ex. focus groups, interviews, and observations

Quantitative Methods

measurement of outcomes uses numerical data under standardized conditions

Scientific Method

founded on two assumptions, nature is orderly and events/conditions are not random or accidental

The Research Process

1. Identify research question 2. Design study 3. Implement study 4. Analyze datas 5. Disseminate ( share) findings

Evidence-Based Practice

quality care chosen depending on based on current evidence, clinical expertise, patient values, and clinical circumstances

translational research

Application of basic scientific findings to clinically relevant
issues, focuses on efficacy and effectiveness

Models of Health and Disability

model to describe how peoples life with their health conditions

Intraprofessional Research

Members of one profession working together and sharing info from one perspective

Multiprofessional Research

Multiple professions work in parallel to provide input, each stay in professional boundaries

Interprofessional Research

Multiple professions work together and contribute various skills to integrate info

Transprofessional Research

High level of cooperation between multiple professions, blur boundaries and share skills

Applied Research

can be viewed along a continuum
• Classified as descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory
• 3 classifications indicate research purpose
• Different types of research can overlap
• Not a hierarchy

Randomized Control Trial (RCT)

An efficacy trial involving the controlled comparison of an experimental
intervention and a placebo, sham, or usual care condition. Through
random assignment and restricted subject selection, the design controls
for bias to allow cause-and-effect conclusions

Pragmatic Clinical Trial ( PCT)

An effectiveness trial with a focus on real-world outcomes. Participants
represent the patients that would typically received treatment, and
testing takes place in clinical practice settings. Outcomes focus on
issues of importance to patients and stakeholders, including quality of
life, cost, and implementation

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Comparative designs that do no have a control group or randomization.
Includes time-series designs that allow for repeated measurements over
prolonged periods to document trends

Single-Subject Designs (N-of-1-
trials)

Systematic study of one or more subjects with repeated measurements
under controlled and experimental conditions to show changes in
responses with and without intervention, or comparing more than one
intervention

Cohort Studies

observational studies where one or more cohorts are followed prospectively to determine their status with respect to a disease or outcome and their exposure to certain risk factors

Case-Control Studies

observational studies that compare patients with (cases) and without (controls) a disorder or outcome of interest. They help identify risk factors by looking back at exposure history of both groups.

Correlational/Predictive Studies

explore relationships and can be used for decisions making, diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention

Methodological Studies

use correlational and comparative methods to demo reliability and validity of measuring instruments, including interpretation of change and responsiveness

developmental research

investigation of patterns of growth and change over time; may
chronicle natural history of a disease or disability

Normative Research

Establishes normal values for specific variables; serves as guidelines
for diagnosis and treatment planning

Case Report/Case Series

Description of one or several patients or communities to document
unusual conditions or the effect of innovative interventions

Historical Research

Reconstructs the past to generate questions or suggest relationships
of historical interest to inform contemporary perspectives

Mixed Methods Research

both qualitative and quantitative research methods

EBP Process

ask clinical question, acquire relevant research, appraise literature, apply evidence, assess effectiveness of evidence

Appraisal Process ( Clinical Appraisal)

Finding a study revelant to your clinical question, read abstract, read full text

Core Questions- Meaningfulness

what were the outcomes, how are the results interpreted?

Core Questions- Application to Patients

are the findings useful?

NNT

number needed to treat

NNH

number needed to harm

Critically Appraised Topic (CAT)

a brief summary of a search and critical appraisal related to a clinical question

Measurement

he process of assigning numerals to variables to represent quantities of
characteristics according to certain rules

Precision

exactness of a measure

Levels of Measurement

Nominal, ordinal, interval ratio

Nominal Scale

lowest level of measurement, no relative order ex. numbers, letters or words can be used as a category label ( arithmetic properties: counting)

Ordinal Scale

numbers ranked in order, intervals inconsistent or not known ex. manual muscle test, function, pain ( Arithmetic properties: counts, percentages)

Interval Scale

Numbers indicate rank order and demo equal intervals ex. temp, calendar years ( arithmetic properties; addition and subtraction)

Ratio Scale

Highest level of measurement, numbers indicate equal intervals and have a true zero, negative values are not possible ex. age, height, weight ( arithmetic properties: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division)

HeLa Cells

named after Henrietta Lacks who’s cells were used for research without her knowing

National Research Act

Signed into law by Nixon in response to the misconduct in the Tuskegee syphilis study, requires research to be review by IRB

Belmont Report

focuses on institutional guidelines, informed consent, and review of proposals for the protection of particpants

The 3 Guiding Principles by the belmont report

Respect for persons, beneficence, justice

Respect for persons

personal autonomy, respect human dignity, diminished autonomy must be protected

Beneficence

maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harm, requires that an investigation be justified when studying a treatment to determine its benefits despite known risks

Justice

fairness of the research process

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

full board, expedited , exempt

Consent Elements

voluntary, considerations for special populations, free to withdraw whenever

Full Board

reviewed by convened IRB committee, greater than minimal risk

Expedited

minimal risk, reviewed by IRB chair or designee

Exempt

not greater than minimal risk, reviewed by IRB chair, designee, or staff

Reearch Misconduct

fabrication, falsification, plagiarism

Fabrication

making up data or results and recording or reporting them

Falsification

manipulation research materials, equipment or processes

Plagiarism

taking another person’s ideas, process, results or words without giving credit

Replication

one study cannot be final word, if study can be replicated and produce similar findings = the ultimate goal

Appropriate Power

ability to document significant effects is dependent on the size of effect and sample size

Primary Sources

Reports provided directly by the investigator, such as journal articles

Secondary Sources

include reviews of studies presented by someone other than original author

PICO

population, problem, person, intervention, comparison, outcome

Population

larger group which results in research being generalized, cumulative group of people, objects, or events that meet specific criteria

Sample

subgroup of population, serves as a reference group

Sampling Bias

occurs when the individual’s selected for a sample over or underrepresent a population, either conscious or unconscious bias

Levels of Sampling Process

target population - accessible populations - sample

inclusion criteria

Traits targeted to qualify someone as a
subject for a study

exclusions criteria

factors that would prevent someone from being a sunject

Types of Probability Sampling

Simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster sampling, disproportional

simple random sampling

unbiased, without replacement

systematic sampling

Researcher divides number of components in the available population by
number of components selected
• Sampling Interval: the distance between the selected elements
• Starting point chosen at random
▪ Using least time consuming and most convenient
▪ Generally considered equivalent to random sampling
1

Stratified Random Sampling

identify characteristics by accessible populations by separating into non-overlapping subsets, proportional

Cluster Sampling

involves successive random sampling in stages

Disproportional Sampling

selecting random samples of adequate size from adequate size from each category

Types of Nonprobabilty Sampling

convenience, quota, purposive, snowball

convenience sampling

cannot generalize, subjects are chosen based on availibility

Quota Sampling

incorporates parts of stratification

Purposive sampling

researcher picks specific subjects based on specific criteria

snowball sampling

used to study sensitive topics, rare traits, personal networks, or social relationships, carried out in stages

systematic measurement error

predictable errors, occurring in one direction, constant and biased

random measurement error

errors due to chance, unpredictable and can be different from trial to trial

generalization theory

not all erors is random, can be attributed to the rater or test occasion

Relative reliability

reflects true variance as a proportion of total variance in a set of scores, unitless coefficient

Absolute reliability

indicates how much of a measured value, expressed in the original units, is likely due to error

Reliability coefficients

can range between 0.00 to 1.00

correlation

association between two sets of data that reflect how consistent the position of the two distribution are

direct agreement

reliability test estimating the ability of researchers to analyze if data is in agreement

Types of Reliability

test-retest, rater, alternate forms, internal consistency

Maximize Reliability

standardize measurement protocols, train raters, calibrate instruments, take multiple measurements, choosing a sample with a range of scores