development (exam 3)

cognitive development

the growth of a person’s ability to think, reason, and understand the world, often studied through stages of increasing mental complexity.

social development

the process by which humans learn to interact with others, form relationships, and understand social norms and intentions.

nature vs. nurture

the debate about whether development is primarily driven by biological/genetic factors (nature) or environmental influences and experiences (nurture).

context

the environment and circumstances in which a person develops, which influence learning, social skills, and behavior.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Jean Piaget’s framework describing four stages of mental growth: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)

Piaget’s stage where infants experience the world through senses and actions; learning involves object manipulation and basic cause-effect understanding.

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or heard, typically developing in the sensorimotor stage.

A-not-B error

a phenomenon where infants reach for an object where it was previously hidden (A), even after seeing it hidden in a new location (B), reflecting incomplete object permanence.

schemas

mental frameworks or categories used to organize and interpret information about the world.

assimilation

the process of interpreting new experiences using existing schemas without changing the schema.

accommodation

the process of adjusting or creating new schemas to incorporate new experiences and information.

preoperational stage (2-7 years)

Piaget’s stage marked by symbolic thinking and language development, but limited logical reasoning; includes egocentrism and difficulty with conservation.

conservation

the understanding that quantity, mass, or volume remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance; typically mastered in the concrete operational stage.

egocentrism

the inability to see the world from perspectives other than one’s own, common in the preoperational stage.

theory of mind

the ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions different from one’s own; foundational for social reasoning and empathy.

concrete operational stage (7-11 years)

Piaget’s stage in which children think logically about concrete events, understand conservation, and can classify objects and perform mathematical operations.

formal operational stage (11 years-adult)

Piaget’s stage characterized by abstract, hypothetical, and systematic thinking.

receptive skills in development

abilities related to understanding language, social cues, and environmental stimuli before expressing them actively.

expressive skills in development

abilities related to producing language, gestures, or behaviors to communicate or act on the environment.

attachment

a close emotional bond between a child and caregiver, providing comfort, security, and a secure base for exploration.

secure attachment

a strong, healthy bond where the child feels safe, seeks caregiver support, and explores confidently.

insecure attachment

an inconsistent or weak bond where the child may be anxious, avoidant, or ambivalent toward the caregiver.

imprinting

a form of rapid, early learning in which certain animals (and humans to a degree) form attachments during a critical period.

Harlow’s studies

experiments with rhesus monkeys showing that attachment is based on comfort and security rather than just physical needs like food.

sensitive period

a developmental window in which experiences have a particularly strong influence on growth (e.g., attachment formation or language learning).

social deprivation

a lack of social interaction during critical periods, which can lead to cognitive, emotional, and social impairments.

Romanian orphan studies

research showing that early adoption (before ~6 months) can prevent long-term developmental delays caused by social deprivation.

cross-fostering

a research method where offspring are raised by caregivers other than their biological parents to study the effects of nature versus nurture.

temperament

innate personality characteristics, such as irritability or reactivity, which interact with caregiving to influence social development.

Strange Situation

a structured observational method to assess attachment style in infants by observing reactions to caregiver separation and reunion.

prerequisite skills

foundational abilities or knowledge that must be acquired before more complex skills can develop.

social connection as a fundamental human need

the concept that humans are biologically prepared to form relationships and cannot develop fully without social interaction.