AP Euro - Time Period 3 Review (Units 6 and 7)

Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid growth in the use of machines in manufacturing and production that began in the British textile industry in the mid-1700s

- developments in manufacturing, transportation, and communication transformed Europe's economy from one dependent on agriculture to one dependent on industry

Factors that led to British Industrial Revolution

Agricultural Revolution, labor supply, natural resources, investment capital (money), transportation/geography, and available markets

Mass production

Process of making large quantities of a product quickly and cheaply through the use of machinery and assembly lines

- contrast to previous cottage industry, where goods were produced in small batches in homes or small workshops

Capitalism

An economic system based on private property and private ownership of capital

- individuals owned the means of production (factories, transportation, mills, etc) and profited from them

- created a new social class of wealthy factory owners whose wealth came from business, not inherited land

Steam engine

an engine that uses the expansion or rapid condensation of steam to generate power

- invented by James Watt in 1769

- powered by coal (led to the drastic increase in coal mining and transportation)

- enabled factories to move away from water power (rivers, etc) and could now be located anywhere

Bessemer Process

Method for mass producing steel quickly and cheaply that was patented by Henry Bessemer in 1856

- blasting hot air through melted iron to quickly remove impurities

- steel is more durable and resistant to rust than pure iron

Britain's Great Exhibition of 1851

1. Great Exhibition was intended to showcase Britain's industrial strength and displayed many new inventions

2. Included the centerpiece of the Crystal Palace - Crystal Palace was a multistory glass and steel structure (like a huge greenhouse) that was the length of three city blocks - symbol of industrial age

Railroads

Networks of iron (later steel) rails on which steam (later electric or diesel) locomotives pulled long trains at "high" speeds.

- first built in England in the 1830s

- carried raw materials to factories and manufactured goods from factories to consumers in cities

- carried people as well, leading to greater mobility and the creation of common culture/national identity

Patents

licenses that give an inventor the exclusive right to make, use, or sell an invention

- allowed inventors to profit from their work

- increase in patents issued by the British government allowed inventors to develop many more new devices

Middle class (in Britain)

New social class created by the Industrial Revolution

- neither peasants nor nobles nor clergy

- merchants, factory or mine managers, bankers, etc.

- wealthier and better educated than peasants but without status and power of nobles/clergy

- pursued higher education, leading to increased literacy, national identity, and global awareness

Industrialization in France

Took place after 1815 after the disruption/violence of FR and Napoleon

- industrialized slower and in a more controlled fashion, so they avoided the social and political problems that industrialization caused in Britain

- focused mainly on high-quality luxury goods like silks and porcelain

Industrialization in German states

Overall slow industrialization due to the economic isolation of the different German states and the wide dispersion of natural resources

- Prussia was one of the first German states to industrialize due to large deposits of coal and iron and eventually became an industrial leader of Europe

- Ruhr Valley became center of iron production

Zollverein

Free trade zone created between the German states in 1834

- ended trade barriers and eliminated taxes on goods traded between German states

- allowed German industry in general to expand rapidly

- early step towards unification of Germany

Irish Potato Famine

Famine in Ireland in the 1840s and 1850s after the potato crop was destroyed by blight

- potatoes were staple crop of Ireland (nutritious and easy to grow in Ireland's poor soil), which had been governed as a British colony since 1801

- Britain did little to help the Irish and still demanded they pay rent (evicting those who could not pay) and export potatoes even when crops failed

- over 1 million died of starvation and disease and over 2 million emigrated to the US, Britain, Canada, or Australia

- worsened political and religious tensions between Britain and Ireland

Emancipation Edict of 1861

Law issued by Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1855-1881) that began gradually abolishing serfdom in Russia and, on paper, allowed ordinary people to own land and participate in government

- since peasants lacked money to buy land and had little education, they tended to stay on their estates and continue working for landowners

- lives changed little

Second Industrial Revolution

Another expansion of manufacturing, transportation, and trade from 1870-1914

- increased development of chemical engineering (plastics, etc), electrical, oil, and steel industries

- mass production of consumer goods, food, and clothing

- popularization of cinema, radio, and leisure activities

Internal combustion engine

an engine that burns fuel inside cylinders within the engine

- ushered in age of vehicles powered by gasoline, diesel oil, and liquid fossil fuels

Manchester

City in England that became one of the world's leading industrial cities during the second industrial revolution

- center of textile production and other consumer goods

- created world's first industrial park in 1898 (area designated exclusively for manufacturing)

Telegraph

A device for rapid, long-distance transmission of messages (using Morse code) over an electric wire

- invented by American Samuel Morse in the 1840s

- first time that humans could transmit information faster than a human or animal could travel

- one of the first practical uses for electricity

Telephone

Patented by Scottish American inventor Alexander Graham Bell in 1876

- as telephone usage grew, it led to the availability of switchboard operator jobs for thousands of young women and contributed to the movement for economic independence

Radio

First developed in the 1890s as an early form of wireless communication

- first voice transmission in the early 1900s

- allowed people to transmit ideas and news across the globe and led to global interconnectedness

Transportation of the Second Industrial Revolution

- Bicycles developed in the 1870s as a cheap and reliable form of transportation

- Steamships developed in the late 1800s, which decreased shipping time and increased mobility of troops and supplies during wartime

- Streetcars became main method of transportation for people in European urban centers

- Airplanes first successfully built by the American Wright brothers in 1903 and eventually featured an internal combustion engine, which led to a multitude of economic and military uses

Monopolies

Corporations that gain complete control of the production and trade of a single good or service.

- limits or controls competition in their industry

Examples of consumerism & home innovations

- department stores became destinations for middle class shoppers to buy many different goods in one location

- refrigerated railroad cars allowed food to be shipped across farther distances

- invention of gramophone allowed people to hear recorded music

- lightbulbs and electricity enabled people to socialize at night

- radiators made homes warmer in the winter

Proletariat

Urban working class

- worked in manufacturing, mining, railroads, etc

- crowded and unsanitary living conditions

- women and children needed to work to financially support families

Bourgeoisie

DIFFERENT CONTEXT THAN FRENCH REVOLUTION

- middle class

- worked in business, law, medicine, banking, etc

- owned homes on the edge of cities (growing suburbs)

- women rarely worked outside of the home

- excess income allowed them to become major consumers of new industrial products

Tenements

Urban apartment buildings that served as housing for poor factory workers (proletariat)

- poorly constructed and overcrowded as thousands moved to cities in short periods of time

- multigenerational or multifamily

- unsanitary and allowed diseases to spread quickly

Class identity

the awareness of, and sense of belonging to, a specific social class

- Europeans increasingly identified with those of similar economic, occupational, or social backgrounds as themselves throughout the 1800s

- might consider members of other classes to be opponents or enemies

Effects of urbanization

- rapid population growth in cities and decreasing rural populations

- cities became centers of government and politics

- urban overcrowding and lack of housing

- spread of contagious diseases like tuberculosis and cholera in crowded tenements

- widespread poverty and increase in crime/prostitution

- poor public infrastructure...lack of running water, no method for sewage disposal away from water sources, etc

Cult of Domesticity

Idealized view of women and the home

- social custom that restricted women to caring for her house

- woman was a tender and self-sacrificing caregiver who provided a shelter for her children and a peaceful refuge for her husband

- standard only for middle class women...working class women needed to balance raising children with working factory jobs

Factory Act of 1833

First legal attempt to protect working children in Britain

- children under 9 years old could not work in a factory or mine

- children between 9-13 years old could only work up to 9 hours a day

- children between 14-18 years old could work up to 12 hours a day

- no child could work between 8:30pm-5:30am

- children were required to receive 2 hours of schooling per day

- weak and largely ineffective...families lied about age of children, factory owners who violated this law went unpunished, and children rarely received their 2 hours of education

Mines Act of 1842

No boy under the age of 10 could be employed in coal mines in Britain

- women and girls were banned from working in mines entirely...work was seen as too difficult and degrading

- women felt threatened by this law and it limited job options for many

Ten Hours Act of 1847

Law passed by Parliament

- children between 13-18 years old as well as women could only work 10 hours/day on weekdays and 8 hours/day on weekends

- children under 13 were banned from working

July Revolution of 1830

Demonstrations and rebellion in reaction to King Charles X's increasingly autocratic and absolutist policies

- 500 citizens and soldiers killed in 3 days

- Charles' distant cousin, Louis-Philippe assumed the throne and reigned as a constitutional monarch

- doubled number of French men with voting access

Greek Independence Movement

Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Empire from 1821-1832

- Ottomans had forced Greeks to serve in the military, pay additional taxes, and had destroyed ancient Greek temples

- Greek nationalist military force gained the support of Britain, France, & Russia (all wanted to weaken Ottomans for various reasons)

- Ottoman Empire recognized Greece as an independent state in 1832

Revolutions of 1848

Liberal and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe following the Congress of Vienna and discontent with monarchs using conservatism to maintain power

- overthrew monarchy in France but led to the rise of Louis-Napoleon aka Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon) who ruled an authoritarian dictator

- revolutions in Prussia & other German states led to the creation of a constitution, but the king never accepted it and the revolution was crushed

- Revolutions in Austria, Hungary, & Italy also failed

- short-term failures across Europe - "turning point at which history failed to turn" and led to monarchs becoming more conservative

- long-term success?

Tsar Alexander II of Russia

Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881.

- issued Emancipation Edict in 1861 which officially abolished serfdom but still made it difficult for peasants to obtain land

- supported equality before the law and independent courts

- financed construction of Trans-Siberian Railroad (world's longest)

- modernized military and created first Russian draft

- reforms moved slowly and he ultimately still ruled as an absolute monarch

Tsar Alexander III of Russia

Son of Alexander II who assumed the throne after his assassination

- modernized Russian economy and improved education

- reforms brought changes but Russians still lived in poverty under an oppressive government

Liberalism

Political ideology that emerged from the Enlightenment, French Revolution, & Industrial Revolution

- emphasized civil rights of individual citizens and representative government

- favored social contract theory, religious toleration, and expansion of male suffrage

- popular among property-owning middle classes

Jeremy Bentham

British theorist and philosopher who supported liberalism and proposed utilitarianism

- supported many causes like prison reform, female education, religious freedom, and decriminalization of homosexuality

Utilitarianism

The theory, proposed by Jeremy Bentham in the late 1700s, that government actions are useful only if they promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people

- any action is "right" if it promotes happiness and well-being for those affected, which contradicts Christian teachings about things that are inherently right or wrong

John Stuart Mill

English philosopher and politician who was influenced by Bentham and liberalism

- believed that everyone should seek happiness as long as they did no harm to others

- supported free speech, equal rights for women, and the abolition of slavery

Chartism

19th century British working class reform movement

- wanted voting rights for all men regardless of wealth or property

- petitioned Parliament with the "People's Charter" in 1842

- engaged in violent clashes with police

- unsuccessful but influenced later movements like socialism and Marxism

Socialism

A system in which the government owns and controls the means of production (the ways people gather raw materials and manufacture goods) and use them for the public good

- economy is not governed by supply and demand...government is closely involved in production/distribution of wealth

- proposed as alternative to capitalism

- emphasized collective spirit and solidarity

- popular among working class

- distrusted by both liberals and conservatives

"Utopian" Socialism (Owen/Fourier/St. Simon)

Introduced by French philosopher Henri Saint-Simon in the early 19th century

- wanted to build clean, efficient, safe, and humane factories and workspaces

- later philosophers like Fourier and Owen wanted to build intentional communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively and govern communally

Karl Marx

German historian, philosopher, and economist who coauthored "The Communist Manifesto" and wrote "Das Kapital"

- early critic of capitalism and creator of Marxism

- predicted that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead to a "dictatorship of the proletariat", which would be a transitional phase into a classless society

Marx's view of history

All history is an unending story of class struggle between the "haves" and the "have nots"

- different types of societies throughout history have developed different types of government

- technology shaped economics, which eventually shaped politics and culture

Marx's view of his era

Alarmed by the way capitalism caused workers to live in poverty and the middle class to live wealthily

- predicted a class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in which the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie

- a "dictatorship of the proletariat" would be a transitional phase into a classless society in which all property is owned collectively

Communism

Culmination of Karl Marx's theory that a classless society would emerge from the struggle between proletariat and bourgeoise

- property would be owned collectively

- **never actually happens anywhere**

Rosa Luxemburg

radical female German socialist and member of the German communist party

- believed workers should revolt against governments that oppress them

- murdered in the aftermath of WWI by conservative Germans

Anarchism

A political theory that opposes any type of government in any form

- believed that governments do nothing but exploit people and that society would function better without them

- believed that capitalism should be overthrown by force

- prominent in violent underground movements

Mass Politics

Emergence of mass political parties and expansion of political democracy in Western Europe

- increase in voting rights

- coincided with industrialization and the creation of new social classes, who wanted to be able to influence the government in some way

Napoleon III

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte

- came to power in 1848 after the Revolutions of 1848 and the creation of the Second Republic

- extended voting rights to adult men

- declared himself emperor in 1852 and government became increasingly authoritarian

- overthrown in 1870, making him the last monarch of France

Paris Commune

A brief Parisian movement created after the fall of Napoleon III

- created from socialist and anarchist workers

- fought for reforms in education, welfare, and women's rights

- defeated after bloody fights with police

Temperance movement

campaign to limit or ban the use of alcoholic beverages

- founded and supported by women

- unsuccessful but part of broader attempts at social reform

Sunday School movement

Earliest form of public education in Britain

- created in 1795 to provide education for working class children

- mostly taught by women

- provided education for children who went on to become leaders in scientific fields and other areas

Pankhurst family

Emmeline and her daughters led the Women's Social and Political Union to protest women's suffrage in 1903

- organized huge rallies

- protestors were physically assaulted by police and frequently arrested

- increased awareness of women's suffrage issues and led to women getting the right to vote in 1928

Professional police force & prison system

As crime increased in cities, London created the first centralized police force in the world

- unarmed but their presence reduced the crime rate

Prison reformers in Britain tried to standardize prisons and spread across Europe

- men and women were separated

- prisoners should have access to education and employment for rehabilitation

Education reform in mid-late 1800s

- Swiss reformers believed that poor children should be educated and that learning should involve hands-on activities and field trips

- In Germany, kindergarten (garden of children) was developed

- In France, nonreligious public education became available at no cost, leading literacy rates to rise

Romantic Idealism

Looking back as the past as a nobler and more perfect time, emphasizing folk traditions, music, and legends of one's past.

- individual common man was valued

- democracy & liberalism = goal

Victor Hugo

(1802-1885) French writer in the French Romantic movement - best known novels: Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Les Miserables

- novels depicted poor individuals suffering under cruel societies

Racialism

belief in the existence of biologically distinct races

- some races are superior to others

- umbrella term for racism

Pan-Slavism

a movement to create an independent nation state of Slavic people from Central and Eastern European countries

- popular in Russia & Austria in particular

Antisemitism

hostility to or prejudice against Jews.

- byproduct of militant, authoritarian, & racist nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

- increasing pogroms against Jews

- takes on new racial tone instead of simply religious prejudice as Social Darwinism rises

Pogroms

organized violence towards a particular ethnic group

- most commonly references violence towards and massacres of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon)

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte who was elected president of France in 1848 when the French tried to establish another republic

- crowned himself emperor in 1852

- modernized/redesigned city of Paris

- reformed France by building railroads, creating new banks, encouraging shipbuilding, and backing the construction of the Suez Canal in Egypt

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist (1805-1872) who supported the idea of a united Italian peninsula

- founded the Young Italy movement in 1832 that led several small uprisings but found little success

- inspiration to later Italian nationalist/unification movements

Camillo di Cavour

known for leading Italian unification, he drove Austrian forces out of Sardinia in 1858 & worked to gain control of northern Italy with the support of Napoleon III and the liberal Italian middle classes

- joined with Garibaldi's united southern provinces to officially unify Italy

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian chancellor from 1862 to 1890

- best known for using realpolitik to engineer a series of wars to unify Germany

- used diplomacy, industrialized warfare, and manipulation of democracy to unify Germany

- maintained balance of power through complex alliance systems designed to isolate France

- tried to create a conservative, centralized state

Dual Monarchy

1867 compromise that joined Austria and Hungary under two different crowns due to the violent revolutions of 1848

- shared ministers for foreign policy, finance, and defense

- recognized political power of Hungarians (largest ethnic minority in the empire) by creating two capitals and two official languages

- Emperor Franz Joseph was a member of the Habsburg family

Karl Lueger

Mayor of Vienna, Austria from 1897 to 1910

- founder of Austrian Christian Social Party

- proudly conservative, nationalistic, and antisemitic

- inspirational to Hitler for his ideologies and use of discriminatory propaganda

Dreyfus Affair

The 1894 accusation and trial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish-French military officer accused of passing military secrets to Germany

- Dreyfus was convicted with little to no evidence

- example of increasing antisemitism against Jews (seen as a convenient scapegoat)

Zionism

A movement founded in the 1890s to promote the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine

- hundreds of years of pogroms and persecution caused people to suggest an independent nation for Jewish people to escape violence

- Theodore Herzl was an early founder

Theodor Herzl

(1860-1904) German-Jewish journalist and founder of the Zionist movement urging the creation of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine.

- Antisemitism from Dreyfus Affair was integral in inspiring Zionism

- wanted Jews to have a place to safely practice their religion and form their own government

Crimean War

War from 1853-1856 between Russia and an alliance of Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France

- Russia wanted control of Black Sea and to prove their military strength against a weakening Ottoman Empire

- France and Britain wanted to maintain balance of power, so they intervened to help the Ottomans and prevent Russia from becoming too powerful

- one of the first wars to be followed closely by civilians through newspaper coverage, journalist access, & photos

- viewed as a useless war

- humiliating for Russia and showed them the need to industrialize and modernize

King Victor Emmanuel II

(1820-1878)

The King of Piedmont (northern Italy) that appointed Cavour his Prime Minister and supported the unification of Italy.

Realpolitik

"realistic politics," practical politics, end justifies the means, power is more important than principles

- needs of country and leader come before everything else

- Machiavellian approach to power politics

- using whatever means necessary to achieve political goals

- used by Otto von Bismarck and Camillo di Cavour

Giuseppe Garibaldi

(1807-82)

Italian patriot and military figure who led the Red Shirts to unify the southern states of Italy by using nationalism

- joined his unified southern states with Cavour's unified northern states to create one united Italy under the rule of King Victor Emmanuel II

Italian Unification

Unified in 1861

- Previously, Italy was separated into many states. Cavour worked to unify the North while Giuseppe Garibaldi unified the South

- ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II

- unification finished in 1871 when Rome was added and became the capital

German Unification

Finalized in 1871 under Prussian rule

- achieved by chancellor Otto von Bismarck using a series of 3 wars that he provoked - policy of "blood and iron"

- excluded Austria from German unification because Austria was Catholic (Bismarck was Protestant), Austria was poorer, and Bismarck wanted them as a German ally

- culmination of growing nationalism in German states

- established Second Reich (German Empire) under Kaiser Wilhelm I

Franco-Prussian War

(1870-1871)

War between France and Prussia and the final step towards the unification of Germany

- Caused by Otto von Bismarck after he altered a telegram from the Prussian King in order to provoke the French into attacking Prussia

- He hoped he could encourage the independent German states to support Prussia in a war against France, and he was correct (thus creating a united Germany)

- important territories of Alsace and Lorraine ceded to Germany

- Treaty of Frankfurt was signed in the Palace of Versailles as a slap in the face for the French and fueling a French/German rivalry for the future

Kulturkampf

"Cultural Struggle"

- policy pursued by Bismarck to diminish the power of Catholicism by passing laws to expel Jesuits, end Catholic education, introduce civil marriage, and break relations with Vatican

- policies were halted because they were unsuccessful and because the threat of socialism seemed more concerning to Bismarck

Kaiser Wilhelm II

(1859-1941)

Kaiser of Germany from 1888-1918 after the death of his father

- supported aggressive foreign policy (building a colonial empire and strengthening military to compete with Britain)

- disagreed with Bismarck's slower and more calculated/restrained approach and dismissed him in 1890

- actions added to growing tensions leading to World War I

Triple Allliance

Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy at the end of the 19th century

- division of Europe into alliances was designed to maintain balance of power but actually increased tension prior to World War I

- goal: isolate France

Triple Entente

Alliance between Britain, France, and Russia in the years prior to World War I

- division of Europe into alliances was designed to maintain balance of power but actually increased tension prior to World War I

- goal: counter growing German strength

Charles Darwin

(1809-1882)

English naturalist who traveled the world studying fossils and plant specimens and developed the theory of evolution

- published his book On the Origin of Species (1859)

Natural selection

Darwin's theory that as populations compete for finite resources, the unfit populations will be weeded out

- stronger individuals with certain traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates and pass down their strong traits, whereas unfit individuals do not reproduce as frequently and the traits are not passed

Theory of evolution

Darwin's idea that species change and adapt over time

- humans descended from primates

- contradicted the Bible teachings by suggesting that humans descended from animals as opposed to being created by God

Herbert Spencer

English philosopher and sociologist (1820-1903)

- created Social Darwinism, which applied the theory of natural selection to human societies

Social Darwinism

Belief that Darwin's theory of "survival of the fittest" was also true when it came to human races and classes

- upper classes were inherently superior to lower classes

- white Europeans were biologically and culturally superior to people of Africa and Asia, whom they had a "duty" to conquer and "civilize"

Positivism

the belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific observation

- knowledge of facts is based on sensory experience, not intuition

- derived from Enlightenment emphasis on reason

Modernism

A cultural movement embracing human empowerment and rejecting traditional beliefs as outdated

- viewed industry and technology as cornerstones of progress and human achievement

- embraced social change and new ideas in psychology and political theory

Irrationalism

Philosophy that focused on people's impulses, intuition, spirits, and instincts instead of strictly reason or logic

- emphasizes importance of emotions or unconscious mechanisms

Friedrich Nietzsche

German irrational philosopher (1844-1900)

- claimed "God is dead" and that developments in science and reasoning and an increasingly secular world had killed him

- proponent of nihilism (life lacks purpose and nothing matters)

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist (1856-1939) who created psychoanalysis (study of unconscious mind) and distinguished psychology as a separate discipline

- believed human behavior is motivated by unconscious urges

- suppressed sexual urges from childhood may play a role in behavior

Albert Einstein

German physicist (1879-1945)

- redefined how people thought about space, time, gravity, energy, and matter

- developed theory of relativity, which states that time, space, and mass are relative to each other and not fixed

Imperialism

A policy of extending a nation's power and influence over another country through diplomacy or military force

- most notably used by European nations over African and Asian nations in the late 1800s

- motives: resources, rivalries, racism

"White Man's Burden"

1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling that encouraged the idea that European countries had a "duty"/responsibility to spread their religion and culture to those "less civilized"

- turned imperialism into a "civilizing mission"

- comforting to Europeans at home as a successful justification for violent imperialism

Mission Civilisatrice

"civilization mission" - French term for the drive to civilize the people they controlled during the Age of Imperialism

- similar to ideas employed by Europeans during the Age of Exploration

- importance of indoctrinating indigenous people to accept Western ideals of religion and government

Minie Ball

Advanced type of bullet used by new rifles in the late 1800s

- made rifles more accurate from a farther range

- led to massive casualties in Crimean War, American Civil War, and imperial conquests