Sociology 1 Midterm

Institutions

longstanding practices and organizations that regulate those practices

C.Wright Mills

coined the term sociological imagination

“Sociology”

Studies societies and the social worlds that individuals inhabit

Sociological imagination

thinking systematically about what we experience as personal problems

Social beings

connected to others in a variety of ways; we are part of complex social networks (social media platforms)

Stereotypes

A generalized belief about a group of people

Social environment/influences

 economic and cultural conditions that influence people’s lives (ex: family’s educational background, community we grow up in)

Social interaction

The way people act together, governed by social norms

Social structure

Captures the “ways in which the rules and norms of everyday life become enduring patterns that shape and govern social interaction (social hierarchies/institutions)

Social hierarchies

social position that grants individuals higher status

Social theory

systemic idea about relationships between individuals and societies

Karl Marx

Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society

Social class

groups of people who share economic interests

Marx’s three historical eras

Ancient Societies, Feudalism, Capitalism

Forces of production

technological and productive capacity of a society

Social relations of production

how people relate to each other for purposes of producing goods

Divisions of capitalism

between the bourgeoisie, who own and control the capital, and the proletariat who are forced to work for them

Class conflict

struggle for power in society. Human behavior in social contexts results from conflicts between competing groups

Socialism

theory advocating for collective or government control of the means of production, distribution, and exchange, aiming for greater equality, social welfare, and cooperation over competition, often as an alternative to capitalism

Emile Durkheim

focused on social order and social solidarity

Social facts/social forces

regularities and rules of everday life that every human community has

Durkheim’s types of solidarity

Social: what holds societies together

Mechanical: individuals are tied to one another by kinship/tribe membership

Organic: extensive division of labour and mutual dependence among people

Max Weber

Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.

Weber’s four types of social action

Instrumental rationality, Value Rationality, Affectual Motives, Traditional Motives

Power

a person's ability to achieve his or her objective even if someone else wants to prevent it”; sometimes involved the use or threat of force

Three types of authority

Traditional, Charismatic, Legal-Rational

Status/status groups

groups of people with similar kinds of attributes/ identities

Social closure

process in which groups seek monopolize opportunities and rewards (gatekeeping)

Georg Simmel

argues that modern society is formed by individuals positioned at the intersection of expanding social circles, where varying degrees of social distance shape relationships, an idea that laid the foundation for network analysis

Instrumental Rationality

behavior-oriented towards gaining and achieving some specific award

Value-Rationality

behavior guided by a belief in some ultimate value, regardless of awards

Affectional Motives

Action that is guided by positive or negative emotions

Traditional Motives

Action guided by a belief in following established traditions

Authority

the capacity to get people to do things because they think that they should abide by the commands of people above them

Social distance

how close individuals within groups are from each other (closer the distance the stronger the tie, the further the weaker)

Network analysis

W.E.B. Du Bois

argued that race is a central social structure in American society, introducing concepts like double consciousness to explain how Black Americans navigate a world shaped by systemic racism

Steps to answering a research question

Examples of ethical issues in sociology

Qualitative methods

Detailed interviews, direct observations, historical records/pictures, etc

Quantitative methods

numerical data, statistical methods to test hypothesis

Surveys

standardized questions for group of people

Interviews

Ethnography

research method with direct observation of individuals life

Comparative-Historical

tests hypothesis about social, cultural, and political change

Social desirability bias

people tend not to give answers that might be perceived as undesirable by interviewers

The challenges of collecting data

Sampling

the process of identifying the subjects a researcher will study

Reliability

 the “repeatability” or “consistency” of a particular variable or measurement

Validity

the accuracy of the measure

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation shows two variables change together (an association), while causation means one variable directly causes the other to change (correlation does not imply causation)

Spuriousness

two factors seem to move in same direction because of third factor

Types of data

Race vs. ethnicity (differences, implications)

Essentialist view

presumes individual's racial identity depends on characteristics that are unchangeable

Constructivist view

belief that racial categories are a social creation and not biological

Social construct

social phenomenon that was invented by humans and shaped by social forces

Racism

prejudice or discrimination by an individual, community, or institution against a person on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethnic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized.

Prejudice

negative belief held about an entire groups based on stereotypes

Discrimination

behavior that harms individuals or puts them at a disadvantage on the basis of their group membership

Individual discrimination

intentional acts by individual or group

Institutional discrimination

actions or policies that exclude, disadvantage, or harm members of a group

Examples of racial and ethnic disparities in health

Examples of racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration

Examples of racial and ethnic disparities in income/wealth

Examples of racial and ethnic disparities in employment

Examples of racial and ethnic disparities in affirmative action

Gender

the affects the social forces of being male or female will have

Sex

biological differences

Social construction of gender

entire system of social processes that create or sustain gender differences and gender inequality

Patriarchy

gender system in which men have more power than women