apes unit 4

convergent boundary

convergent boundary

two tectonic plates are moving towards each other ( -> <- ) ex: marina trench

subduction

The process where one tectonic plate moves beneath another plate at this boundary, forming a deep ocean trench and causing volcanic activity.

divergent boundary

two tectonic plates are moving apart from each other ( <--> ). This can create visible fault lines, , seafloor spreading, , and . A few examples are the East Africa Rift Valley, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the East Pacific Rise

seafloor spreading

takes place at these boundaries on the ocean floor. As the two tectonic plates move apart from each other, magma is able to go up through the space between the plates. The cool ocean water cools it down and more rock forms.

transform boundary

two plates slide past each other 🔼🔽. This often causes eartquakes. As the plates slide past each other, friction and energy build up. When this heat/energy is released quickly, an earthquake results. An example of this is the San Andreas Fault in California.

soil horizons

Layers of soil with distinct characteristics;
O Horizon: Organic matter, leaves, and decomposed plants.
A Horizon: Topsoil, rich in minerals and nutrients.
E Horizon: Eluviation, minerals leached out.
B Horizon: Subsoil, accumulation of minerals.
C Horizon: Weathered parent material.
R Horizon: Bedrock, solid rock beneath soil.

water quality

erosion can negatively affect this

water holding capacity

the amount of water that soil can absorb given the effects of gravity upon the soil. Particle size and amount of organic matter present plays a big role in this. Contributes to land productivity and fertility of certain soils

what do maps determine by showing global distribution of plate boundaries

location of volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults

when does an earthquake occurs

when stress overcomes a locked fault releasing stored energy

when are soils formed

when parent material is weathered, transported, and deposited

what does protecting soil do

protect water quality as soils effectively filter and clean water that moves through them

porosity

how porous soil is - largert particles of soil is more porous

permeability

ability of nutrients and water to move down soil horizons/ larger particles increase permeability of soil bc theres more space btwn particles and soil is more permeable as it has more space for water to move

fertility of soil

nutrient levels and extent to support vegetation

chemical properties

pH and cation exchance. soil pH how acidid and basic, able to shift depending on amount of pollutants and acit range.

aeration

ability of soil to take in essentials like nutrients, water, and oxygen. Soil with good ——- is able to take in needed amounts of sunlight and water which is key to fostering plant growth.

soil texture triangle

allows us to identify soil using the percentage of clay, silt, and sand. The angle of the numbers shows you the way the lines go for each type of particle. you follow the lines of each particle based on percent. The point where the lines intersect is the type of soil it is. For example, if we had a soil sample with 20% clay, 50% sand, and 30% silt, we would have loam

earths atmosphere is made up of

oxygen and nitrogen with its own relative abundance

how is nitrogen released into atmosphere

dentrification

how is oxygen released

photosynthesis and through plants

atmosphere levels

the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

troposphere

This layer is the shallowest layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer, temperature decreases as altitude increases, as all weather occurs in this atmospheric layer.

stratosphere

mainly composed of Earth's ozone layer, which is used for protection from UV rays. Thanks to the ozone layer, the troposphere doesn’t receive 100% of the UV rays given off by the sun. This plays a big role in the temperature in the stratosphere, whose temperature increases with altitude unlike the troposphere,

mesosphere

In this layer, the temperature decreases as you increase in altitude. This layer is very cold, and temperatures in the mesosphere can reach below -80 °C (-115 °F).

ionsphere

this layer often traps protons, electrons, and other ions given off by the sun. As you increase in altitude in this layer, the temperature increases because this layer receives a lot of UV radiation and energy from the sun.

exopshere

highest layer of earth- is the upper limit of our atmosphere! At its top, it merges with the solar wind, and while no weather occurs here, the aurora borealis and aurora australis can be seen at its lowest point. Many satellites orbit this layer of the atmosphere and the molecules in this layer have extremely low density.

solar radiation

the earth’s axis is tilted, heat and solar radiation is unevenly distributed. heat accumulates at the equator naturally, thus leaving the poles without heat. The Earth uses various processes to circulate warm air towards the poles and move cooler air towards the equator.

convection cells

move air from equator to poles ex: polar, ferrel, hadley cells

hadley cells

• occur between 0° and 30° latitudes (directly north and directly south of the equator). At the equator, these cells start with warm, rising air. Then, as the air moves away from the equator, the air falls as cooler air.

ferrel cells

occur between 30° and 60° latitudes. Around the 30° latitude line, the cold, dry air of a Hadley cell falls, pushing warm air up

polar cells

occur at latitudes greater than 60°. Polar cells start around the 60° latitude line where warm air from the Ferrel cells is pushed up. At higher latitudes, this air cools and falls as dry air on the poles

corolis effect

When an object is in motion relative to a rotating frame of reference, it appears to curve in a certain direction. This effect is most noticeable at long distances and at high latitudes, where the rotation of the Earth has the greatest influence.

trade winds

If the earth wasn’t spinning, the winds would travel in a straight line; however, since the earth rotates, these winds do as well. If you look at the global circulation image, you will see that the lines representing wind currents are curved.

watershed

a channel (stream, river) that concentrates runoff (water) to the main discharge point (a large body of water), and discharge point is at the lowest point in this.

size of watershed

reflection of the amount of runoff and what is created by the runoff, i.e. river, stream, or creek. It could also reflect how the runoff is discharged, i.e. the ocean or lake. It also plays a role in how much runoff can be held

runoff rate

increased by steeper slopes that allow water to flow downwards with the help of gravity.

watershed distance

the distance between the headwaters and the discharge point. This mainly impacts how long it takes for runoff to reach the discharge point. Hence, the longer it is, the longer it would take for runoff to be discharged.

type of soil in watershed

impacts the amount of runoff absorbed by soil as well as the vegetation. If the soil is very sandy or has large particles, the soil will take in more runoff water. In addition, if the soil is fertile, there will be more vegetation. Finally, soil can play a role in filtering water in this

vegetation

. The more plants in a watershed, the lesser amount of erosion that will take place. can also improve soil fertility and water filtration.

main source of earth’s energy

incoming solar radiation, aka insolation, dependent on season and latitude

why is latitude important to intensity of solar radiation

due to shape of earth, latitude directly horizontal to solar radiation recieves the most intensity

highest solar radiation

recieved at equator and decreases towards poles

sun influences climate

the primary source of energy for the Earth's climate system. The intensity of the sun's radiation can vary slightly over time, which can have an effect on the Earth's climate. Additionally, variance in seasons and latitude (season intensity in the Arctic, versus the United States, versus Ecuador, versus the Antarctic...) as we discussed before clearly contributes to unique climates. Solar radiation and its dispersion can greatly influence a climate.

earth’s orbit

shape of this around the sun can affect the amount of solar energy that reaches the Earth's surface. The ellipse that our planet orbits on is not a circle, so climates can change depending on proximity.

greenhouse gases

heat our atmosphere since it absorbs energy. Contributions like mass deforestations and burning of fossil fuels maintain that humans have contributed the most to climate change and global warming. While this does irreparable damage to our planet and community, it also creates hotter, more abrasive, and more dangerous climates worldwide. It can also increase the likelihood of natural disasters, which may change the climate of a certain region if not avoided.

volcanoes

large eruptions put out a lot of ashes and atmospheric gases, which cools the Earth's surface by blocking solar radiation. Be aware that this effect of the eruption will at most last several decades, and is not a permanent alteration to the climate. It also is not strong enough of a deterrent for our current situation regarding global warming.

ocean currents

he movement of the Earth's oceans can have a significant influence on climate because of the ocean's large heat capacity, meaning that it can store heat energy present on Earth.

land masses

shape and elevation of the Earth's land, like mountains can block the movement of air masses. This causes differences in temperature and precipitation on either side of the mountain range, and different conditions on the top of the mountain depending on its height (or altitude)

rain shadow effect

results in one side of a mountain receiving more precipitation than the other side. On the windward side, warm, moist air rises up the mountain, cools, and falls as precipitation. However, on the leeward side, they don’t receive much precipitation because the air doesn’t have much moisture left.

el niño

warming of the Pacific Ocean between South America and Papua New Guinea (just north of Australia, an island in the Southwest Pacific). This occurs when the trade winds in that region weaken, which causes the west coast of South America to experience warmer waters. This effect also allows the thermocline to move deeper.

Causes higher preciptation in drier climates but colder winters in southeastern USA

la niña

a cooling of the Pacific Ocean between Papua New Guinea and South America, essentially the opposite of an El Niño. formation begins when the trade winds get stronger, which pushes warm coastal water further and further away from the South American coastline. Deeper and colder water from the ocean will rise, which is called upwelling. This means that the thermocline has instead moved up, creating less room for warm ocean.