AP Psych Unit 2 Vocab Set #1

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful obects and events

Bottom-Up Processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes; we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations

Perceptual Set

a predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Figure and Ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

Proximity

the grouping of objects or items that are close to each other

Similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

Attention

focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

Selective Attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Cocktail Party Effect

ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Binocular Depth Cues

cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes

Retinal Disparity (Binocular Cue)

our two eyes see slightly different images; the brain processes distance — the greater the difference between two images, the closer the object

Convergence (Binocular Cue)

the extent to which the eyes cross when looking at an object

Monocular Depth Cues

aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

Relative Clarity (Monocular Cue)

hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

Texture Gradient (Monocular Cue)

as distance increases, there is a gradual change in the way we perceive texture; coarse and distinct to fine and indistinct

Linear Perspective (Monocular Cue)

the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance

Interposition (Monocular Cue)

if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer

Apparent Movement

an illusion of movement perception that occurs when stimuli in different locations are flashed one after another

Prototype

a mental image or best example of category

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; speedier but more error-prone

Representativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent/match prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events as common

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Priming

the activation of certain associations (usually unconsciously), resulting in predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Framing

the way an issue is posed and its effect on thinking and decision-making

Gambler’s Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently (e.g., believing a coin has to land on tails since it landed on heads the last five times)

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

Executive Function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes (includes thinking, planning, and problem-solving)

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Divergent Thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; taking creative thinking in different directions

Convergent Thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional Fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; suppresses creativity and problem-solving

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

Prospective Memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic Memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up of our general knowledge of the world

Implicit Memory

memories we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Procedural Memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as result of practice; knowing how to do things

Long-Term Potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Working Memory Model

an explanation that sees short-term memory as an active store holding several pieces of information simultaneously

Working Memory

involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Central Executive

the part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources

Phonological Loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

a component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Multi-Store Model

explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (e.g., space, time, and frequency) and of well-learned information (e.g., word meanings)

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Levels of Processing Model

model of memory that assumes information that is more deeply processed will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

Shallow Encoding

encoding based on surface features (what something looks or sounds like); basic understanding

Deep Encoding

encoding based on an event’s meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience; deep understanding

Structural Encoding

relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

Phonemic Encoding

encoding information according to the sound of the word used to identify it

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning (including the meaning of words)