IB Psych

localization of function

the idea that different parts of the brain have different functions and every behavior is associated with a part of the brain; damage to these regions could cause partial or full loss of that behavior/function

Studies: Maguire (2000)

neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to change throughout its life due to genetics or environmental stimuli

Studies:

Maguire (2000)

Draganski. et al (1994)

neurotransmitter

chemicals that are sent between neurons, which are nervous system cells, that allow for the chemical communication between neurons and the passing of signals; used to regulate behavior or emotion

Studies:

Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) - dopamine

ethical considerations

a set of principles that guide research and case studies

informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm

antagonist

a chemical that binds to the receptor site of specific neurotransmitters and stops that neurotransmitter from binding and sending a signal

Studies:

Lapidus et al. (2014)

neural networks

The process by which neural networks are formed is called neuroplasticity. When a neuron is stimulated, an action potential (an electrical charge) travels down the axon. Neural networks are created when a neuron or set of neurons are repeatedly stimulated. This repeated firing of the neurons, called long term potentiation, results in gene expression which causes the neurons to sprout new dendrites - known as dendritic branching. This increases the number of synapses available for the behaviour. The branching of neurons in the brain is called grey matter.

Studies:

Maguire (2000)

neural pruning

when neurons and their synaptic connections that are not used often get eliminated to increase the efficiency of neural networks that are being used; can happen if a behavior is discontinued or a skill unused

agonist

a chemical that amplifies the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to the receptor sites of that neurotransmitter and activating them, increase activation of receptors; opposite of antagonist

Studies:

Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005)

inhibitory or excitatory synapses

Excitatory synapses increase the likelihood that the next neuron will fire, stimulating neural activity. Inhibitory synapses will decrease the likelihood of the next neuron firing, reducing neural activity. 

Studies:

Crockett et al. (2010)

hormones

chemical messengers released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream, they influence behavior by regulating physiological processes and emotional states

Studies:

Fisher, Aron, Brown (2005) - dopamine

pheromone

chemical substances produced by the body that are believed to influence the behavior or physiology of others of the same species; in humans their existence remains debated

Studies:

Hare et al. (2017)

gene

A gene is a segment of DNA that influences physical and behavioral traits. Specific genes can contribute to specific behaviors

Studies:

Caspi et al.

how genetic similarities help psychologists study genes and behavior

Genetic similarities allow psychologists to compare behavior between people of different amounts of shared genes, therefore studying the role of genes in behavior. A way to study this is through twin studies. Identical twins share the same DNA, while fraternal twins only share half, therefore there should be a greater correlation between traits and percent of shared genes. For example, identical twins raised together should have a higher correlation than identical twins raised apart. 

evolutionary explanation of behavior

Evolutionary explanations of behavior show how humans have changed over time, specifically by exhibiting behaviors that increase chances of survival. 

Studies:

Curtis, Aunger, and Rabie (2008)

use of kinship or twin studies in the study of inheritance of behavior

Kinship and twin studies are used to estimate the heritability of behavior by comparing similarities between individuals with different degrees of genetic relatedness

Studies:

Bouchard and McGue (1981)

multi-store model of memory

memory has 3 components: sensory, short-term, long-term; characterized by how long and how much information it can hold

sensory memory detects information and holds it until it moves to short-term or gets lost; it’s modality specific, meaning information is held based on whether is was olfactory, visual, auditory; duration is very short and attention is needed

short-term memory lasts about 30 seconds unless attended to, to move to long-term the info must be rehearsed

long-term: stores large amounts of info for indefinite time

Studies:

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

schema theory

schema: an organized mental representation of information about the world, events, or people that is stored in long-term memory

theory: how the brain organizes and interprets information using the mental structures

Schemas form by relating experiences. Social schemas are about others, self schemas are about yourself, and script schemas are about events.

Studies:

Bartlett (1932)

dual processing model of thinking

describes two types of thinking:

System 1 is fast, automatic, and relatively unconscious due to prior experiences, used more in everyday or known situations

System 2 is slower and more rational, used in unknown situations

working memory model

focuses on the structure of short-term memory as multiple interacting components

central executive is the control system

visuospatial sketchpad holds visual and spatial information

phonological loop holds sound information and is composed of the phonological store (holds sound passively) and articulatory rehearsal component (info in verbal form)

episodic buffer puts all the info together and helps memory from working memory to LTM

Studes:

Conrad and Hull (1964)

reconstructive memory

active processing of information

memory might not be entirely reliable since we rebuild memories every time we remember them

Studies:

Bartlett (1932)

flashbulb memories

vivid memories that last long about highly emotional events

Studies:

Brown and Kulik (1977)

Social Identity Theory

developed by Henri Tajfel

explains how individuals define themselves based on their group memberships, an individual’s identity is a combo of the in-groups they belong to

social categorization is when humans create in-groups and out-groups

social identification is when humans behing to adopt the norms and behaviors of their social groups

social comparison is when humans compare their in-groups to out-groups resulting in positive distinctiveness (judging your group to be better to improve self-esteem), leads to stereotypes and discrimination

Studies:

Tajfel et al. (1971)

Social Cognitive Theory

developed by Albert Bandura

explains how humans learn behavior through observation and imitation

observational learning - learning occurs through observing models

attention is watching the model, retention is remembering the observed behavior, reproduction means the observer must have the ability to replicate that behavior, motivation means they must be motivated to do so with rewards or punishments

Studies:

Bandura’s Bobo Doll

formation of stereotypes

stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs about a group of people and attributing behaviors to individuals based on schema

one theory for formation of stereotypes is illusory correlation:

cognitive bias of assuming a relationship between two variables when no relationship exists

humans try to form efficient and accurate schemas about the world and other people, events that are especially memorable are more likely to be recalled, when something unusual happens involving a member of a minority group it’s more liekly to be remembered causing an overestimation of its frequency

Studies:

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) - illusory correlation

effects of stereotyping on behavior

once characteristics are attributed to a group of people, those characteristics are often used to describe all members of the group, which affects the behavior of individuals

one effect of stereotyping is the stereotype threat:

when a person is made aware of a stereotype about their group, it might have a negative effect on their behavior because this threat increases spotlight anxiety and the feeling that you are being judged, and that anxiety harms performance

Studies:

Steele and Aronson (1995)

cultural dimensions

created by Hofstede

explain and compare norms for specific behaviors in cultures

the differences in values or beliefs reflect what they view as the most important for their culture

individualism vs. collectivism:

individualistic cultures value personal success and self-sufficiency, collectivist cultues focus more on the group and responsibilities to that group

Studies:

Berry’s cross-cultural conformity study (Berry et al. 1967)

enculturation

the process by which individuals adopt or internalize the behaviors and values of their own culture

helps people function successfully within their society and occurs through socialization with parents, school, peers, or the media

these values can be learned through observational learning

Studies:

Cohen et al. (1996)

acculturation

the psychological and cultural changes that occur as a result of contact and interaction between cultures

can influence values, identity, and behavior as individuals balance between the heritage culture and the dominant culture

Studies:

Hsu and Barker (2013)

Ishizawa and Jones (2016)

assimilation

a process within acculturation where individuals abandon their heritage culture in order to adopt the norms and values of a new culture

Studies:

Ishizawa and Jones (2016)