AP Psych Units 1-9 Vocab

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

An early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Freudian Psychology (or Psychoanalysis)

Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.

Psychodymanic

Psychodynamics, also known as psychodynamic psychology, in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience

Gestalt Psychology

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Cognitive Approach

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking"

Evolutionary Approach

An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

Socio-cultural Approach

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational Psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the processes that underlie it

Industrial-organizational psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology, which is also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, or work and organizational psychology; is an applied discipline within psychology. Industrial, work and organizational psychology is the broader global term for the field internationally.

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometric

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Frequency Distribution

In statistics, a frequency distribution is a list, table or graph that displays the frequency of various outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval

Normal Distribution (Or Normal Curve)

a symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents data about how many human characteristics are dispersed in the population.

Skewed Distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Bi-modal

2 peaks; having or involving two modes, in particular (of a statistical distribution) having two maxima.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Percentage

In mathematics, a percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent sign, "%", or the abbreviations "pct.", "pct"; sometimes the abbreviation "pc" is also used. A percentage is a dimensionless number. W

Percentage Rank

The percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it. For example, a test score that is greater than 75% of the scores of people taking the test is said to be at the 75th percentile, where 75 is the percentile rank.

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Replicate

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Experiments

a research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental processes while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects

Correlational Studies

Correlational research is a type of nonexperimental research in which the researcher measures two variables and assesses the statistical relationship (i.e., the correlation) between them with little or no effort to control extraneous variables.

Survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Naturalistic Observations

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Case studies

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Longitudinal Studies

A research method that studies the same participants multiple times over a period of time

Cross-sectional Studies

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect.

Illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Scatter plot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Regression-toward-the-mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

APA

American Psychological Association

Informed Consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Coercion

Coercive psychological systems use psychological force in a coercive way to cause the learning and adoption of an ideology or designated set of beliefs, ideas, attitudes, or behaviors. ... In a psychologically coercive environment, the victim is forced to adapt in a series of small "invisible" steps ...

Anonymity

Anonymity in psychological research means that the data collected from participants is confidential and cannot be traced to any particular individual. ... When a study uses anonymity the information is collected in a way that makes it impossible to match data to a specific participant.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is a part of the ethical guidelines of psychologists and means that information between a patient and a therapist cannot be shared with anyone. This applies to patients and any health professional, including doctors and nurses.

Protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Federal Regulations

Laws enacted by the federal government.

IRB (Local Institutional Review Board)

An institutional review board, also known as an independent ethics committee, ethical review board, or research ethics board, is a type of committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

he Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee (IACUC) ensures that the highest animal welfare standards are maintained along with the conduct of accurate, valid scientific research through the supervision, coordination, training, guidance, and review of every project proposed to include the use of vertebrate animals

Mary Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins was an American philosopher and psychologist. Calkins was also the first woman to become president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Dorothea Dix

Dorothea Lynde Dix was an American advocate on behalf of the indigent mentally ill who, through a vigorous and sustained program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums. During the Civil War, she served as a Superintendent of Army Nurses.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

G. Stanley Hall

Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University.

WIlliam James

William James was an American philosopher and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of the late nineteenth century, one of the most influential philosophers of the United States, and the "Father of American psychology".

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.

Carl Rogers

Carl Ransom Rogers was an American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology.

B.F. Skinner

1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Margaret Washburn

Titchener's student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

John B Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Addiction

A physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

Adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

All-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Altered state of consciousness

state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

Autopsy

An examination of the body after death usually with such dissection as will expose the vital organs for determining the cause of death.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands