approaches

origins of psychology

• branch of philosophy

• Wundt opened first psychology lab in Germany in 1879

• psychodynamic approach (Freud)- 1900’s

• behaviourist approach (Skinner)- 1913

• humanistic approach (Maslow + Rogers) 1950’s

• cognitive approach established in 1960’s after intro of digital computer

• social learning theory (Bandura)- 1960’s

• from 1980’s, biological approach is dominant

• cognitive neuroscience- end of 20th century

what are the key approaches in psychology

• learning approaches (behaviourist + social learning theory)

• cognitive approach

• biological approach

• psychodynamic approach

• humanistic approach

what did Wundt do

• first person to call himself a psychologist

• published first psychology book in 1873

• opened first psychology lab in 1879 in Germany

• used introspection to investigate human

  mind

• established psychology as a science by using scientific method (e.g. recorded introspection in controlled lab environment, carefully controlled stimuli + standardised instructions which enabled replication to check reliability)

introspection AO1

• involves participants reflecting on their mental + emotional state (e.g. thoughts including sensations, feelings + images)

• focus is on being objective

• Wundt asked people to focus on everyday objects (e.g. metronome) + look inwards, noticing sensations, feelings + images

• aimed to break thoughts about an object down into separate elements (structuralism) + help him develop systematic reporting of an experience of an object

evaluation of introspection (AO3)- positives

• easy + simple method + provides direct observation of mental processes. It’s the only method by which a person can be directly aware of their own experiences + try to analyse thoughts

• quick + easy- no lab or specialist equipment needed so can be done any time anywhere

evaluation of introspection (AO3)- negatives

• participant acts as the observed (experiences their mental processes) + the observer (analyses the experiences) simultaneously, which distorts their mental experiences. So introspection may not reflect true nature of mental activities

• very subjective (lacks objectivity), which makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions

• experiences of 1 person can’t be generalised to understand the mental activity of another person. So an overall theory about mental processes can’t be devised, as mental processes differ from person to person

• lacks empirical evidence, so lacks scientific validity + credibility, making it less useful when constructing theories

• social desirability bias, so lacks validity. Many people don’t want to reveal all their private experiences (embarrassing), so report may not be entirely truthful

what are the learning approaches

• behavioural approach

• social learning theory

learning approaches main assumptions (AO1)

• all behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment

• focus on observable behaviour that can be quantified + measured using lab experiments + controlled observations

what does tabula rasa mean

blank slate (when born our minds are a blank slate according to the learning approaches)

what are the 2 types of conditioning in the behaviourist approach

• operant (Skinner)

• classical (Pavlov)

classical conditioning AO1

• learning through association

• Pavlov investigated salivary response in dogs:

  • dogs salivate when food (unconditioned stimulus) is presented (unconditioned response)

  • bell (neutral stimulus) was repeatedly rang at same time as food (unconditioned stimulus) was presented

  • after many pairings, dogs associate bell with food, so bell becomes conditioned stimulus + causes salivation (conditioned response)

• conditioned response can be extinguished if CS is presented without UCS a few times

• CR can become generalised to other similar stimuli

in Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what was the unconditioned stimulus

food

in Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what was the unconditioned response

salivation

in Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what was the neutral stimulus

bell

in Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what was the conditioned stimulus

bell

in Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what was the conditioned response

salivation

evaluation of Pavlov’s classical conditioning research (AO3)- positives

• high reliability- lab experiment + standardised procedures

• can be easily replicated + tested for reliability to study how humans + animals learn through association

evaluation of Pavlov’s classical conditioning research (AO3)- negatives

• low generalisation as dogs were used, which are less complex than humans (different cognitive abilities + orders of processing). May be inappropriate to extrapolate animal findings on classical conditioning to human learning

• counter argument: Little Albert is an example of classical conditioning in humans

Little Albert AO1

• Watson + Rayner classically conditioned a previously unafraid infant to fear a white rat

• neutral stimulus: white rat

• unconditioned stimulus: loud noise

• unconditioned response: crying

• conditioning process: repeatedly presented rat to Albert whilst making loud noise

• conditioned stimulus: white rat

• conditioned response: Albert’s fear of the rat

evaluation of Little Albert (AO3)- positives

• high reliability: use of standardised procedures allowed for high control over extraneous variables, so can replicate study + check reliability

• application to everyday life: shows phobias can be learned through classical conditioning, so we can incorporate this into treatment of phobias using systematic desensitisation

• high experimental validity

evaluation of Little Albert (AO3)- negatives

• low generalisation: Albert had been brought up in hospital since birth + hadn’t been seen to show fear, so he may have responded differently to how other children would’ve

• lacks ecological validity: findings can’t be generalised to other settings outside of lab, as method used created an unnatural situation which may not reflect learning in everyday life

• ethical issues: researchers didn’t extinguish fear of rat, but could argue that benefits to others through development of therapy outweigh the costs to Albert

• credibility issue: research suggests Albert had hydrocephalus from birth so may have been neurologically compromised. If true, this undermines W + R’s claim he was normal + healthy + calls into question the credibility of the study

operant conditioning AO1

• learning through the consequence of behaviour

• Skinner used Skinner boxes to investigate conditioning in rats + pigeons

• when animal accidentally pressed a lever, they were given food

• animal pressed lever more to get more food

• if food stopped, animal eventually gave up (extinction)

• positive reinforcement: increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated because behaviour produces a pleasant outcome

• negative reinforcement: increased likelihood of the avoiding behaviour because it avoids an unpleasant outcome

• punishment: decreases likelihood of behaviour occurring because behaviour is followed by an unpleasant outcome

• positive punishment: giving something (e.g. a fine)

• negative punishment: taking away something (e.g. no phone)

what is positive reinforcement

increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated because behaviour produces a pleasant outcome

what is negative reinforcement

increased likelihood of the avoiding behaviour because it avoids an unpleasant outcome

what is punishment

• decreases likelihood of behaviour occurring because behaviour is followed by an unpleasant outcome

• positive punishment: giving something (e.g. a fine)

• negative punishment: taking away something (e.g. no phone)

evaluation of Skinner’s research into operant conditioning (AO3)- positives

• high levels of control (e.g. rats kept at 75% body weight so they’re hungry + all kept in exact same conditions). So results are less likely to be affected by extraneous variables, so high internal validity

• empirical, highly scientific approach, as Skinner focused on observable behaviour (pressing lever), so behaviour can be measured accurately + reliably. This increases scientific credibility of the findings

evaluation of Skinner’s research into operant conditioning (AO3)- negatives

• ethical issues: sometimes used electric shocks, which could cause psychological (stress) + physical harm. But it could be argued that using animals meant no humans were harmed + useful knowledge about learning mechanisms we have gained from the study outweigh the costs

evaluation of the behavioural approach (AO3)- positives

• scientific credibility: focuses on careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. Emphasised importance of objectivity + replication

• real life applications: token economy systems reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning). This has been successful in prisons + psychiatric wards

evaluation of the behavioural approach (AO3)- negatives

• simplified + mechanistic view of behaviour: animals + humans are seen as passive + machine like responders to the environment, with little conscious insight into their behaviour. Other approaches (e.g. SLT + cognitive approach) place more emphasis on mental events that occur during learning. The processes that mediate between stimulus + response suggest humans play a more active role in their own learning

• environmental determinism: sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned + ignores any influence of free will on behaviour. Skinner suggests free will is an illusion- this is an extreme position + ignores influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour

• many of supporting research studies have been carried out on non-human animals. Humans have free will + higher cognitive functions, so it’s difficult to extrapolate findings from animals directly to humans, which limits support for the behavioural approach

social learning theory AO1

• people learn through observation + imitation of others

• modelling: someone must carry out behaviour to be learned (e.g. on TV)

• imitation: models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed + copied. More likely to imitate models you identify with

• identification: extent to which an individual relates to the model

• vicarious reinforcement: you’re more likely to imitate behaviour if model was rewarded. You don’t experience reward directly, but you receive it vicariously through others (could also be indirectly punished)

• role of mediational processes: mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine if a new response is acquired

  • attention- extent to which we notice certain behaviours

  • retention- how well behaviour is remembered

  • motor reproduction- ability of observer to perform behaviour

  • motivation- will to perform the behaviour, often determined by if behaviour was rewarded or punished

what are the mediational processes in the social learning theory

• attention- extent to which we notice certain behaviours

• retention- how well behaviour is remembered

• motor reproduction- ability of observer to perform behaviour

• motivation- will to perform the behaviour, often determined by if behaviour was rewarded or punished

• REMEMBER: ARMM

who came up with the social learning theory

Bandura

which research supports the social learning theory

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment AO1

• lab experiment to investigate whether social + anti-social behaviours (aggression) can be acquired by observation + imitation

• pre-tested aggression levels of 36 boys + 36 girls aged 3-6 by observing them in nursery + matched them on aggression levels (matched pairs design)

• 3 conditions:

  • 1: children shown video of an aggressive model attacking bobo doll

  • 2: children watched a non-aggressive model playing quietly

  • 3: not exposed to any model (control group)

• child put in play room for 20 mins + their behaviour was observed (at 5 second time intervals) + rated through a 1-way mirror

• children who observed aggressive model were more aggressive than non-aggressive or control group

• boys more aggressive than girls

• concluded that children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observational learning

evaluation of Bandura’s bobo doll experiment (AO3)- positives

• high control over variables (e.g. language + toy used)- less influence of extraneous variables, so higher internal validity (more confident children’s aggression was due to observing aggressive model)

• matched pairs design reduces affect of participant variables, which increases internal validity

evaluation of Bandura’s bobo doll experiment (AO3)- negatives

• artificial lab setting: task had contrived nature which may have led to demand characteristics (children thought they should hit bobo doll)

• low external validity: just because child hits doll in a lab, doesn’t mean they’ll hit a person in real life. This limits the generalisability of the findings

• low internal validity: were the children actually behaving aggressively or were they just copying the actions of the model

evaluation of social learning theory (AO3)- positives

• emphasises importance of cognitive factors in learning (classical + operant conditioning don’t acknowledge complex cognitive processing which occurs during learning). SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising role of mediational processes (e.g. retention + motivation)

• supported by Bandura’s bobo doll experiment: found children who observed an aggressive model made more aggressive responses than children who observed a non-aggressive model. This shows behaviour can be learned through observation + imitation of role models

• less deterministic than behavioural approach: it emphasises reciprocal determinism (we’re not just influenced by our environment, we also exert influence upon it through behaviours we choose to perform). This suggests we have some free will over how we behave, which is a much more positive view of human behaviour + takes into account our control over our decisions

evaluation of social learning theory (AO3)- negatives

• over-reliance on evidence from lab studies: Bandura’s research has been criticised due to its controlled nature. Children may not have been behaving aggressively, they were simply repeating a behaviour due to demand characteristics (they were doing what they thought was expected of them). This reduces the validity of SLT. Also lacks external validity because just because a child will hit a doll, doesn’t mean they’ll hit a person in real life. Use of lab studies reduces support of SLT

• underestimates influence of biological factors: Bandura’s finding that boys were more aggressive than girls could be explained by hormones (boys have more testosterone). So it’s too simplistic as it ignores important contributions from biology

cognitive approach AO1

• human behaviour is the result of internal mental processes such as memory, perception, thought + emotions

• internal mental processes should be studied scientifically

• internal mental processes can’t be observed or measured directly so psychologists observe + make inferences about the mental processes that have caused the behaviour seen

• humans are seen as data processing systems (human mind is like a computer)

• cognitive processing is influenced by schemas (packages of info developed through experience)

• schemas act as mental framework for interpreting of info

• schemas allow us to process lots of info quickly as a useful mental shortcut

• schema can distort our perceptions to make things fit our expectations, leading to perceptual errors

• faulty schemas= mental illness

what are schemas

• packages of info developed through experience

• act as mental framework for interpreting of info

• allow us to process lots of info quickly as a useful mental shortcut

• can distort our perceptions to make things fit our expectations, leading to perceptual errors

• faulty schemas= mental illness

what are theoretical + computer models used in the cognitive approach

• simplified representations of internal mental processes

• theoretical example= multi-store model of memory

• computer model example= information processing model (describe mind as a computer: input, process, output)

what are the strengths of using theoretical + computer models in the cognitive approach

help explain internal mental processes

what are the limitations of using theoretical + computer models in the cognitive approach

• over simplify complex mental processes

• comparing human mind to a machine/ computer is an unsophisticated analogy

cognitive neuroscience AO1

• scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes

• aims to explore neurological basis of thought processes + disorders

• coined by Miller + Gazzinga in 1970s at MIT

• Tulving research used PET scan + fMRI to see how different types of long term memory may be located on different sides of the pre-frontal cortex

evaluation of cognitive neuroscience (AO3)- positives

• demonstrates brain’s plasticity throughout life, supporting role of experience on behaviour (supports nature + nurture)

• shows biology isn’t our destiny

• provided neurological basis for certain psychological disorders, resulting in development of new therapeutics

evaluation of the cognitive approach (AO3)- positives

• uses highly controlled methods- lab experiments used to produce reliable + objective data. Emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed biological + cognitive psychology to come together, so the study of the mind has a more scientific basis

• dominant approach in psychology today + has a wide range of practical applications. E.g. cognitive behavioural therapy effective in treating depression, as it treats faulty thought processes + subsequent behaviours

• founded on soft determinism as it recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know, but we are free to think before responding to a stimulus. It takes a more interactionist position compared to other approaches, so more plausible in explaining human behaviour

evaluation of the cognitive approach (AO3)- negatives

• computer models ignore influence of human emotion + motivation on the cognitive system + how this may affect our ability to process info (e.g. human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as aggression)

• can only infer mental processes from behaviour observed in research. Therefore approach is too abstract + theoretical as it’s difficult to provide empirical evidence for thought processes. Also, experimental studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli, so lacks ecological validity

• other plausible approaches to explaining behaviour (e.g. behavioural model suggests behaviour is learned through experiences in our environment). Cognitive approach places less emphasis on experiences, so it may be too simplistic to fully explain all human behaviours

what was Bulgesky + Alampay’s rat man study

• aim: do schema affect our interpretation of an ambiguous figure

• 2 groups shown a sequence of pics (either human faces or animals) + then a pic of an ambiguous figure of rat man

• participants who saw human faces were more likely to perceive figure as a man

• participants who saw animals were more likely to perceive figure as a rat

• related experiences can alter a person’s perception

• limitation: condition not counterbalanced as part of repeated measures design, so order effects may have occurred

biological approach AO1

• behaviour occurs due to physical causes within the body (nature not nurture)

• genotype is the genetic makeup, inherited from parents

• phenotype is the expression of genes as a result of interaction with the environment (observable physical characteristics)

• differences in brain structure may influence a person’s behaviour

• levels of neurotransmitters in the brain affect human behaviour (e.g. low levels of serotonin may be responsible for depression + high levels of dopamine is associated with schizophrenia)

• Darwin’s theory of natural selection/ survival of the fittest: organisms with the genes which give them the best characteristic for survival in the environment have a greater chance of survival, so are more likely to reproduce + pass on the desirable genes

• Buss argues that mate choices have evolved because they lead to reproductive success (women desire males with resources as they’ll be able to provide for them + their offspring + men prefer young, physically attractive women as it indicates fertility)

what are concordance rates

the percentage of both twins displaying the same characteristics

what is 1 way psychologists studied the interaction of genes

• twin studies

• monozygotic (identical) twins share 100% of genes

• dizygotic (non-identical) twins share 50% of genes

• look at concordance rates (% of both twins displaying the same characteristic)

• should be higher concordance rate in monozygotic twins

• Gottesman + Shields found 58% concordance rate for schizophrenia in monozygotic twins vs 12% concordance rate in dizygotic twins

what are monozygotic twins

• identical twins

• share 100% of DNA

what are dizygotic twins

• non-identical twins

• share 50% of DNA

define genotype

a person’s unique genetic makeup that’s coded into the DNA of individual cells

define phenotype

• the expression of a person's genetic make-up (genotype) that can be influenced by the environment

• observable physical characteristics

how could evolution explain why humans generally have good memories

human memory evolved because it provided advantages (e.g. remembering which berries are poisonous)

how could evolution explain why human parents + their offspring usually make strong attachments

attachment to primary caregiver is necessary for infant’s survival

how could evolution explain why some humans have OCD

traits such as cleanliness mean certain diseases + death are avoided

evaluation of the biological approach (AO3)- positives

• based on research with scientific methods + makes use of precise measures (e.g. scanning techniques, tests for hormones + twin studies). These techniques are objective + free from bias, giving it greater scientific credibility

• useful real life applications: has led to better treatments for mental illness (e.g. drug therapies). Anti-depressants increase availability of serotonin + are effective for up to 75% of people. This suggests biological approach has positive implications

evaluation of the biological approach (AO3)- negatives

• reductionist as it reduces complex human behaviours down to most simple components (genes + concordance). Fails to take into account environmental, social + cognitive factors which also affect human behaviour (e.g. we learn behaviour from models- SLT). A more holistic approach to explaining human behaviour is needed

• deterministic as it sees behaviour as being governed by internal biological processes over which we have no control- it ignores our free will. E.g. testosterone may make you feel more aggressive but you may choose not to act aggressively. Therefore approach is too simplistic

• difficult to separate nature + nurture. Identical twins often used to support genetic basis for behaviour, but twins are usually brought up in same environment, so this could be evidence for environment (nurture) in influencing behaviour rather than shared genes (nature). This limits use of twin studies to support biological approach as its difficult to disentangle effects of nature + nurture. A more interactionist approach is needed

psychodynamic approach AO1

• we inherit innate drives + instincts + humans are hardwired to seek pleasure

• interactions between conscious mind + unconscious may cause conflict, resulting in psychological abnormality

• childhood experiences affect adult behaviour (formation of psyche + psychosexual development)

• personality made up of 3 components (tripartite):

  • id: pleasure principle, present at birth, resides in unconscious

  • ego: reality principle, develops at age 2, reduces conflict between id + superego, resides in conscious

  • superego: morality principle, develops at age 5 (end of phallic stage)

• balanced personality = normal behaviour

• unbalanced personality = abnormal behaviour

• ego-defence mechanisms help ego deal with constant balancing of demands

  • repression: push threatening impulses + distressing memories into unconscious (may emerge as symptoms of psychological abnormality)

  • displacement: transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

  • denial: refusal to acknowledge some aspect of reality

• over or under gratification in a psychosexual stage can lead to fixation

  • oral: age 0-1, focus of pleasure is mouth. fixation= smoking, nail biting

  • anal: age 1-3, focus of pleasure is anus (pleasure from withholding + expelling faeces). anal retentive= perfectionist, obsessive. anal expulsive= thoughtless, messy

  • phallic: age 3-5, focus of pleasure is genital area, experience Oedipus or Electra complex. fixation= narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

  • latency: age 5-puberty, earlier conflicts are repressed

  • genital: puberty, sexual desires less focussed on the self + instead directed at potential partners. fixation= difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

according to the psychodynamic approach, what is the personality made up of

• personality made up of 3 components (tripartite):

  • id: pleasure principle, present at birth, resides in unconscious

  • ego: reality principle, develops at age 2, reduces conflict between id + superego, resides in conscious

  • superego: morality principle, develops at age 5 (end of phallic stage)

what are ego-defence mechanisms

• ego-defence mechanisms help ego deal with constant balancing of demands

  • repression: push threatening impulses + distressing memories into unconscious (may emerge as symptoms of psychological abnormality)

  • displacement: transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

  • denial: refusal to acknowledge some aspect of reality

outline the psychosexual stages

• over or under gratification in a psychosexual stage can lead to fixation

  • oral: age 0-1, focus of pleasure is mouth. fixation= smoking, nail biting

  • anal: age 1-3, focus of pleasure is anus (pleasure from withholding + expelling faeces). anal retentive= perfectionist, obsessive. anal expulsive= thoughtless, messy

  • phallic: age 3-5, focus of pleasure is genital area, experience Oedipus or Electra complex. fixation= narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

  • latency: age 5-puberty, earlier conflicts are repressed

  • genital: puberty, sexual desires less focussed on the self + instead directed at potential partners. fixation= difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

describe the oral psychosexual stage

• age 0-1

• focus of pleasure is mouth

• fixation= smoking, nail biting

describe the anal psychosexual stage

• age 1-3

• focus of pleasure is anus (pleasure from withholding + expelling faeces)

• anal retentive= perfectionist, obsessive

• anal expulsive= thoughtless, messy

describe the phallic psychosexual stage

• age 3-5

• focus of pleasure is genital area

• experience Oedipus or Electra complex

• fixation= narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual

describe the latency psychosexual stage

• age 5-puberty

• earlier conflicts are repressed

describe the genital psychosexual stage

• puberty

• sexual desires less focussed on the self + instead directed at potential partners

• fixation= difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

evaluation of the psychodynamic approach (AO3)- positives

• first theory to emphasise significance of unconscious processes + repressed material influencing our behaviour, something which is now widely accepted. Lots of evidence for role of these factors in areas such as child abuse causing psychological abnormality in adulthood. Eating disorders have also been linked to childhood sexual abuse. So psychodynamic approach has been useful in gaining insight into human behaviour

• first to suggest childhood is important in shaping adult behaviour, which previously lacked support in society. But support can be seen in areas of developmental psychology (e.g. Ainsworth’s work on early childhood experiences + attachment styles). So this approach has made a large contribution to our understanding of psychology

• psychoanalysis- therapy which employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious (e.g. hypnosis + dream analysis). This has been basis for many modern day psychotherapies that have since been established

evaluation of the psychodynamic approach (AO3)- negatives

• overemphasis on infantile stages + early life in causing psychological problems, as problems can arise as a result of adult experiences. Freud assumed psychological disorders could be caused by problems with early psychosexual development , but this isn’t always the case

• fails to recognise other important aspects of development such as role of genetic factors. Disorders such as schizophrenia have a large genetic contribution (individual’s risk of developing disorder is 18 times higher if 1 parent has schizophrenia). This suggests approach is too narrow

• concepts such as id, repression, psychosexual stages + unconscious conflicts are unverifiable- there’s no way of discovering if they actually exist, so there’s no empirical evidence to support. Popper argued approach doesn’t meet scientific criteria for falsification (it’s not open to empirical testing + can’t be disproved). Many of Freud’s concepts occur at unconscious level , making them difficult to test, so approach is less scientific

• idiographic approach as he mainly uses case studies. Sample based on few individuals (mainly middle class individuals who already believed in his theories), so it’s difficult to generalise findings to general population

what’s the Oedipus complex

• theory of Freud

• occurs during phallic stage of psychosexual development

• boy (age 3-6) became unconsciously sexually attracted to his mother + hostile towards his father (views him as his rival)

• envy + jealousy at his father (who is object of his mother’s attention)

• feelings for mother + rivalry towards father lead to fantasies of getting rid of father + taking his place

• hostile feelings towards father lead to castration anxiety (irrational fear father will castrate him as punishment)

• to cope with anxiety, son identifies with father meaning son adopts attitude, characteristics + values of his father

what is evidence of the Oedipus complex

• Little Hans (age 5) had phobia of horses

• Freud tried to explore what factors led to phobia + what factors led to its remission

• at age 3, Hans showed an interest in ‘widdlers’, his own penis + other males (including animals)

• his mother threatened to cut off his penis unless he stopped playing with it

• Hans fear of horses worsened + Freud linked this to fear of horses large penis

• phobia improved, relating only to horses with black harnesses on their noses (symbolised Hans’ father’s moustache)

• Freud linked Hans’ fear to Oedipus complex- horse unconsciously represented Hans’ fear of his father

• Freud suggested Hans resolve conflict by fantasising himself with a big penis + married to his mother, allowing him to overcome castration anxiety + identify with his father

who came up with the psychodynamic approach

Freud

who came up with the humanistic approach

Rogers + Maslow

humanistic approach AO1

• emphasises importance of individual human experience (values subjective feelings + conscious thoughts of person)

• each person is a rational + conscious being + not dominated by unconscious, primitive instincts

• a person’s subjective view + experience of the world is of greater importance to understanding the person than objective reality (person centred approach)

• each person can exercise free will + are active agents who have ability to determine their own development

• self-actualisation: everyone has innate tendency to achieve their full potential, but deficiency needs (physiological, safety, love, esteem) must be met first

• for personal growth to be achieved, an individuals self-concept must be in line with their ideal self (congruence)

• client centred therapy is used to reduce the gap between self-concept + ideal self

• low self esteem can be explained by lack of unconditional positive (setting boundaries or limits on their love) regard from parents

• therapist provides unconditional positive regard

how do you remember the psychosexual stages

old age pensioners like gravy

describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

bottom to top:

• physiological needs (e.g. food + water)

• safety

• love/ belonging (e.g. family + friendship)

• esteem

• self-actualisation (realising full potential)

how do you remember Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

bottom to top: pumpkin spice latte every sunday

why is the humanistic approach often referred to as a person centred approach

it’s concerned with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws

what is the name for the levels below self-actualisation in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

deficiency needs

in the humanistic approach, what is congruence

when an individual’s self-concept is in line with their ideal self

how is congruence achieved

• raising self-concept + lowering ideal self

• client centred therapy

how can incongruence be measured

Q-sort cards (but self-report technique so social desirability bias is possible)

what are conditions of worth

boundaries or limits parents place on their love for their child (e.g. I will only love you if…)

evaluation of the humanistic approach (AO3)- positives

• promotes a positive image of human beings + the human condition. Concepts of personal growth + self-actualisation demonstrate ways people can grow + change throughput their life. Also, achievements + interactions with other people are highly enjoyable + rewarding to the individual. Contrasts with Freud who saw humans as slaves to their past

• focus on subjective experience: important in everyday lives + psychology should attempt to understand + study subjective as well as objective

• rejects any attempt to break up behaviour + experience into smaller components advocate holism (subjective experience can only be understood by considering whole person). Has more validity than alternative approaches by considering meaningful human behaviour within real life contexts

• less deterministic than other approaches as person is seen as being in control of their lives, experiences + relationships with others (people have free will + determine what happens to them in their lives). Contrasts with behaviourist + psychodynamic approaches

evaluation of the humanistic approach (AO3)- negatives

• lack of empirical research to support claims (as it rejects the scientific approach). However there have been recent attempts to measure concepts such as self-actualisation through standardised questionnaires.

• vagueness of concepts: some key concepts + terms are vague + poorly defined (e.g. self-actualisation provides valuable insight into behaviour, but needs precise definition). Precise definitions allow empirical research to be done so human thought + behaviour can be investigated

• culture bias: suited to western, individualistic cultures, not collectivistic cultures who may not strive for self-actualisation

what is counselling psychology (AO1)

• Rogers

• clients rather than patients

• individual is expert on their own condition

• non-directive

• effective therapist provides genuineness, empathy + unconditional positive regard

• aim to reduce level of incongruence between self-concept + ideal self

• uses active listening

evaluation of counselling psychology (AO3)-positives

• research by Elliot showed that in a meta-analysis of 86 studies, humanistic therapies prompted significant improvements in patients when compared to people not receiving therapy. Shows therapy is effective, so supports main assumptions of humanistic approach

• Sexton reviewed a large number of research studies + found 3 principles of Rogerian therapy did result in positive personality changes + successful outcomes for clients

• forward looking + effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on past. However, it’s best for treatment of mild psychological conditions like anxiety or low self worth, not schizophrenia

evaluation of counselling psychology (AO3)-negatives

• success is not inevitable, depends on clients personality. Clients who became very involved in therapeutic process saw therapists as more helpful than clients who were more detached from the process. Drug treatment don’t have this problem

• effectiveness is based on what clients say rather than any objective measures of better functioning + adjustment to life (lack of validity)

• not usually a long term follow up of clients, so don’t know long term effects