Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
Stroke Volume is determined by 3 variables
end-diastolic volume, total peripheral resistance, contractility
Cardiac output formula
CO=SV(HR)
Total blood volume
5.5
Average SV
70-80 ml/beat
Without neuronal influence, what beats
SAwha node
what does norepinephrine do to the heart
depolarize
what does ACh do to the heart
hyperpolarize
EDV
volume of blood in ventricles at the end of diastoleTP
TPR
resistance blood flow in arteries (e.g. cholesterol)
what happens when edv increases
myocardium contraction increases
if actin is overlapping
actin-myosin reduce and contraction is weak
when actin is separated
contraction is harder/greater
medulla secretes
adrenaline, increasing heart contraction (adrenal gland receives signal)
parasympathetic increases or decreases HR
decrease
sympathetic increases what
cardiac rate and contraction strength
veins bring blood….. heart
to the heart
how long does it take for blood to circulate
1 min
what happens to veins when losing blood
vasoconstriction
vasocontriction is caused by sympathetic or parasympathetic
symp
is SV increases what happens to CO
it increases too
inhalation does what to pressure
decreases
do veins have a lot of pressure
no
what type of walls do veins have
thin walls, to accommodate more blood w/o increase in pressure and have valves
where are veins placed
near skeletal muscles, so everytime you move, the blood is being pumped
veins mm Hg prssure
0-10 mm Hg
2/3 of body h2o is where
inside cells, intracellular
1/3 of body h2o is where
extracellular, outside cell. 80% interstitial, 20% blood plasma
Innate immunity
non-specific
first line of defense
innate immunity
which immunity is inherited
innate
first line of dense: epithelial membranes, stomach acidity, cells that can engulf/kill pathogens, interferons, fever
innate
learned defense
adaptive
from exposure to specfic pathogens fx of lymphocytes
adaptive
which immunity is specific
adaptive
external structures
skin, digestive tract, respiratory, genitourinary
internal structures
phagocytic, interferons, complement proteins, endogenous, natural killer, mast cells
includes internal and external defenses
innate
inhibit replication of viruses
interferons (internal, innate immunity)
secreted by leukocytes and other cells; produces fever
endogenous (internal, innate immunity)
destroy cells innfected with viruses, tumor cells, and mismatched transplanted tissue cells
natural killer cells (intenral, innate)
release histamine and other mediators of inflmmation, and cytokines that promote adaptive immunity
Mast cells (innate, internal)
ACtivaton of innate
cells identify “self” from “non self”
use PAMPs (molecular patterns unique to pathogens)
immune cells= “toll-like” receptors bind to PAMPs to their surface
-LPS (gram -) and Peptidoglycan (gram +)
10 toll-like receptors ID’d
cells respond by secretion og chemokines to recruit immune cells or activate specific
____ proteins promote phagocytoses, lysis of target cells and inflammation
complement
Immune system exposes to DAMPs, danger associated molecular patterns, stimmulate innate and inflammation, tissue damage that causes nercrosis
local inflammation
three phagocytic cells
neutrophils
mononuclear: monocytes in blood and macrophages and dendritic cells in tissues) arrive later
organ specific, luver, spleen, lymph nodes, lungs, brain, some called “fixed” phagocytes
location: blood and all tissues
neutrophils (phagocyte)
kupffer cells location
liver (phagocyte)
microglia location
CNS (phagocyte)
phagocytosis process in tissues
Neutrophils and monocytes squeeze through gaps in post-capillary venule walls to enter tissue in a process called extravasation, or diapedesis. 2) Attracted to site by a process called chemotaxis by cytokines called chemokines 3) The pathogen becomes engulfed by pseudopods. 4) The vacuole containing the pathogen fuses with a lysosome. 5) The pathogen is digested
what portion of the body regulates fevers
hypothalamus
what do cytokines produce
fevers, including sleepiness and a fall in plasm iron concentration (limits bacterial activity)
T/F DAMPs stimulates inflammation
true
phagocyte eats microbe
phagocyte “eats” the microbe (similar to the way an amoeba eats) by engulfing it with cytoplasm, so that the microbe is internalized. The microbe thereby becomes surrounded by a membrane derived from the plasma membrane (fig. 15.2) and is contained within a vacuole. This vacuole then fuses with a lysosome, which contains digestive enzymes. However, the lysosomal enzymes may be released before the fusion is complete, killing the cell and contributing to the inflammation of the infected area
apoptosis process
signal macrophages to attack by displaying on their surface a phospholipid molecule (phosphatidylserine) that normally is found only on the inner layer of the plasma membrane. The phosphatidylserine provides an “eat me” signal to macrophages. However, unlike the activation of phagocytes in response to foreign pathogens, other inflammatory processes are suppressed when macrophages eat apoptotic body cells. This limits the “collateral damage” that would otherwise occur as a result of the inflammation.
component of the nonspecific defense system.
fever
Fever is thereby produced as a response of
the body to infection, rather than produced directly by the invading bacteria or viruses
The cell wall of gram-negative bacteria contains
endotoxin, a lipopolysaccharide that stimulates monocytes and macrophages to release various cytokines. These cytokines, including interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor, act to produce fever, increased sleepiness, and a fall in the plasma iron concentration.
produced a nonspecific, short-acting resistance to viral infection
interferons
—— interferon is produced predominantly by hematopoietic cells) in response to microbial infections
alpha
is produced only by particular lymphocytes and a related type of cell called a natural killer cell.
gamma interferon
cells is part of the immunological defense against infection and cancer.
gamma interferons
specific in their actions
antibodies
proteins produced by a particular type of lymphocyte.
antibodies
molecules that stimulate the production of specific antibodies (or
other specific immune response)
antigens
foreign to the blood and other body fluids.
antigens
Many small organic molecules are not antigenic by themselves but can become antigens if they bind to
proteins
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, and blood platelets are all ultimately derived from
(“stem from”) unspecialized cells in the bone marrow.
The lymphocytes that seed the thymus become
T lymphocytes, or T cells (the letter T stands for thymus-dependent)
T lymphocytes, therefore, either come from or had an ancestor that came from
the thymus.
Most of the lymphocytes that are not T lymphocytes are called
B lymphocytes, or B cells.
marrow produces—-lymphocytes
B
bone marrow and thymus are considered the
primary lymphoid organs.
combat bacterial infections, as well as some viral infections, by secreting antibodies into the blood and lymph.
B lymphocytes
provide humoral immunity, although the term antibody-mediated immunity
B lymphocytes
attack host cells that have become infected with viruses or fungi, transplanted human cells, and cancerous cells.
T lymphocytes
do not secrete antibodies; they must come in close proximity to the victim cell, or have actual physical contact with the cell, in order to destroy it.
T lymphocytes
provide cell-mediated immunity
t-lymphocytes
occurs more slowly in adulthood, and appears to be accomplished mostly by production of—— in the secondary lymphoid organs rather than in the thymus.
T lymphocytes
Lymphocytes move from the
primary lymphoid organs (bone marrow and thymus) to the blood, and exit
the
blood through specialized postcapillary venules in lymph nodes to travel in the
lymph from lymphoid organ to lymphoid organ.
events that occur when bacteria enter a break in the skin and produce
local inflammation
local inflammation; Macrophages and mast cells (discussed shortly), which are resident in the tissue, release a number of cytokines and chemokines that attract phagocytic neutrophils and promote
the innate immune responses of phagocytosis and complement activation
found in most tissues, but are especially concentrated in the skin, bronchioles (airways of the lungs),
Mast cells
best known for their production of histamine, a molecule that produces many of the symptoms of allergy
mast cells
mast cells secrete —— vasoactive molecules, pro- inflammatory cytokines, and other molecules that have a variety of effects.
serotonin,
cause the endothelial cells of capillaries and postcapillary venules to contract away from each other, creating gaps between the cells of the endothelium.
mast cell molecules
Histamine and heparin, together with protease enzymes important in inflammation, are stored in
granules within the mast cells.
do lymphcytes die i the course of the infection
lymphocytes can travel through the lymphatic system and re-enter the circulation.
immobilize the bacteria, facilitate their phagocytosis, and may also kill them directly by means of antimicrobial enzymes.
NETs
what releases NETs
neutrophils
produces a viscous, protein-rich fluid that, together with dead neutrophils, forms
pus
ingest microorganisms and fragments of the extracellular matrix by phagocytosis.
Macrophages
which aids in the destruction of bacteria
NO
redness and warmth (due to histamine-stimulated vasodilation); swelling (edema) and pus; and pain
local inflammation:
secrete antibodies that bind to specific antigens.
B lymphocytes
protein factories that produce 2k antibody proteins per sec
plasma cells
are stimulated to become plasma cells and memory cells
B lympho
Antibodies bind to antigens on
bacteria