Govt 2306 ch1

Federal structure

A system of government with a national (federal) government and state governments that share power.

Dual sovereignty

The principle that state governments and the federal government each have authority over certain policy areas, with some shared powers.

Local governments

Sub-state governments such as counties, cities, and towns that provide most day-to-day public services.

Commerce Clause

A constitutional provision that gives Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.

What does “dual sovereignty” mean in practice?

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States and the federal government each control some policy areas independently while sharing others.

Why are local governments important?

They are the most numerous government entities and provide most public services (schools, police, fire, sanitation).

What major responsibilities belong to the federal government?

National defense, foreign relations, and nationwide regulations (e.g., environmental protection).

How does the federal government influence state policy using money?

Through its power to tax and spend—offering funding to states if they adopt certain policies.

Example of federal influence through funding

In the 1980s, federal highway funding was tied to states raising the drinking age to 21.

How has federal funding affected government size?

State and especially local government workforces have grown, while the federal workforce has stayed roughly the same since the 1960s.

Who usually executes federally funded policies?

State and local governments.

How has the Commerce Clause expanded federal power?

Courts have interpreted it broadly, allowing federal regulation in areas like civil rights, education, and law enforcement.

How was the Commerce Clause used in civil rights legislation?

Congress argued racial discrimination affected interstate commerce, justifying federal intervention.

How have state governments changed relative to the federal government?

The federal government has become increasingly dominant over the past century.

What do all state governments have in common structurally?

A tripartite system: executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Example of variation among state governments

Nebraska has a unicameral legislature; Texas and Oklahoma have two state supreme courts.

Liberal state

A state that generally favors higher taxes and more expansive government services and regulations.

Conservative state

A state that generally favors lower taxes and fewer government services and regulations.

Social safety-net programs

Government programs that provide assistance to vulnerable populations, such as Medicaid.

Laboratories of democracy

The idea that states can experiment with different policies and learn from one another’s successes and failures.

Dillon’s Rule

A legal principle stating that local governments derive their authority from state governments and are subordinate to them.

Sovereign government

A government with independent authority to govern itself without being subordinate to another government.

Front: How do states differ in policies and rights?

Back: States adopt different tax levels, spending priorities, and constitutional rights for citizens.

How do California and Texas illustrate state diversity?

California is liberal with high taxes and high services; Texas is conservative with low taxes and fewer services.

How much do California and Texas collect in taxes per person?

California ≈ $8,000 per person; Texas ≈ $4,500 per person.

How do California and Texas differ in social safety-net spending?

California spends over $3,400 per resident; Texas spends about $2,100.

Example of variation in state constitutional rights

Hawaii and Pennsylvania guarantee a right to a clean environment; Alabama and Virginia do not.

Why is policy variation among states considered beneficial?

It allows states to experiment with solutions that others can adopt or adapt.

Example of states as laboratories of democracy

California restricted public smoking in 1995; by 2010, 26 other states adopted similar policies.

Why don’t all states copy policies exactly?

States tailor policies to local conditions (e.g., exemptions for cigar bars or small employers).

Can local governments be sovereign? Why or why not?

No. They derive their authority from states and are legally subordinate to them.

What constitutional fact explains Dillon’s Rule?

The U.S. Constitution grants power only to the federal and state governments, not to local governments.

Real-world example of Dillon’s Rule in action

During COVID-19, state leaders could overrule mayors’ public-health decisions.

County government

A local government unit that typically covers a large geographic area and provides courts, hospitals, tax assessment, and infrastructure.

County board / board of commissioners

An elected county body that usually combines legislative and executive functions.

Ordinance

A law or regulation passed by a local government.

District attorney

An elected county official responsible for prosecuting criminal violations.

County treasurer

An elected official responsible for collecting and spending county funds.

Municipal government

A local government that governs a city or town.

City manager

An unelected professional administrator who runs day-to-day municipal operations in some cities.

How many local governments exist in the U.S.?

About 3,000 counties and 20,000 municipalities

What powers do county governments usually have?

Passing ordinances, overseeing executive functions, providing courts and hospitals, assessing property taxes, and maintaining roads and parks.

Why do counties often combine executive and legislative functions?

Their governing boards both make policy and oversee administration.

What services do municipalities provide?

Water, police and fire protection, road maintenance, and primary and secondary education.

Is the “strong mayor” model universal?

No—many mayors are largely ceremonial, with power shared with councils or city managers.

Population dynamics

Changes in population size, distribution, and composition that affect government planning and policy.

Urbanization

The process by which people move from rural areas (or abroad) into cities.

Rust Belt

A group of states historically dependent on manufacturing that have experienced economic decline and slow population growth.

Heat island effect

The phenomenon where cities are warmer than surrounding rural areas due to paved surfaces and infrastructure.

Political ideology

A structured set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions that guide how people think public policy should be made and society organized.

Partisan political affiliation

A person’s attachment to a political party (e.g., Democratic or Republican).

Conservative

An ideological orientation favoring traditional values, limited government regulation in the economy, and free markets.

Liberal

An ideological orientation favoring government intervention to promote social and economic equality.

Moderate

A political orientation that falls between liberal and conservative positions.

Front: Welfare programs
Back: Government programs designed to support individuals’ basic needs (healthcare, income support, etc.).Progressive taxes

A tax system in which higher-income individuals pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes.

Welfare programs

Government programs designed to support individuals’ basic needs (healthcare, income support, etc.).

How is political ideology different from party affiliation?

Ideology refers to beliefs and values about policy; party affiliation refers to membership or identification with a political party.

What ideological labels do most voters use to describe themselves?

Conservative, liberal, or moderate.

Why does ideology matter for policy?

It strongly shapes policy preferences and voting behavior.

Conservative views on social issues

Support traditional values; oppose abortion, gun control laws, and same-sex marriage.

Conservative views on economic issues

Favor limited government regulation and free-market policies.

Conservative view of government power (key nuance)

Prefer limited government in the economy but strong government power in policing behavior and law enforcement.

Liberal views on social issues

Support same-sex marriage, abortion rights, and strict gun control laws.

Liberal views on economic issues

Support government intervention, progressive taxes, and welfare programs.

Liberal view of government power (key nuance)

Support government involvement in economic and social equality but limit government control over personal behavior.

Are ideologies fully coherent or consistent?

No—people often hold mixed beliefs, and ideologies support government power in some areas but not others.

What do mainstream liberals and conservatives agree on?

Capitalism, free enterprise, and American global leadership.

What do both ideologies broadly accept?

The modern political and economic system that has existed since the mid-20th century.

According to a 2017 Gallup poll, how do most states lean ideologically?

Most states identify as conservative.

How many states had more liberals than conservatives?

Nine states (including Massachusetts, New York, and Oregon).

How has the number of liberal states changed since 2011?

It has gradually increased (from just one state in 2011).

How has the number of conservative states changed over time?

It has gradually declined.

How does state ideology affect education policy?

Liberal states tend to support more public spending and regulation in education; conservative states favor local control and limited government involvement.

How does ideology shape criminal justice policy?

Conservatives support strong law enforcement and punitive policies; liberals emphasize reform, rehabilitation, and civil rights.

Why do education and criminal justice vary so much by state?

Because states have primary authority in these areas and ideological differences shape policy choices.

Ordinance

A law or rule passed by a local government (city, town, or county), often reflecting local ideological preferences.

How are state governments structured?

Same three branches as the federal government: executive, legislative, and judiciary. Most states have bicameral legislatures (except Nebraska).

What is required for a political party to control a state legislature?

A majority in both legislative chambers (House and Senate).

Which party currently controls more state legislatures?

Republican Party: 28 states; Democratic Party: 19 states.

What is “divided legislative control”?

When each legislative chamber is controlled by a different party, requiring compromise to pass bills.

What is “state control” for a political party?

The party has a majority in both legislative chambers and holds the governorship.

How many states have divided overall state control?

10 states.

Which level of government enforces most criminal law?

State governments; over six million people charged with state crimes annually vs. ~80,000 federal.

How does the use of the death penalty vary across states?

Highly variable:

Who primarily funds education in the U.S.?

State and local governments provide the majority of funding; federal funds are supplementary.

Why is funding unequal across school districts?

Local revenue relies mostly on property taxes, and property values vary widely.

What is the “Robin Hood” plan in Texas?

State collects a percentage of income from wealthy school districts to redistribute to poorer districts to reduce disparities.

Has the Robin Hood plan reduced racial disparities in funding?

Yes, in Texas the per-student funding gap between predominately white and black districts is about one-third of the nationwide difference.

How do state constitutions compare to the U.S. Constitution?

State constitutions are longer, more detailed, and easier to amend. They cover everything from government structure to specific policy issues.

What are “police powers” in state constitutions?

Authority for states to regulate health, safety, welfare, and morals of citizens.

Can state constitutions reduce rights guaranteed by the federal Constitution?

No; they can only add rights beyond the federal baseline.

When was the Texas Constitution drafted?

1876.

What makes the Texas Constitution “restrictive”?

It limits government size, restricts revenue-raising ability, and reduces legislative power.

What two historical forces shaped the 1876 Texas Constitution?

1) Reaction to Reconstruction and Republican governance.
2) The Grange movement (populist farmers opposing corporate and government overreach).

How often does the Texas legislature meet?

Regular session: 5 months every two years; special sessions are called by the governor.

Who are the key executives in Texas?

Governor (limited powers, signs bills, can veto budget items) and Lieutenant Governor (controls legislative committees and budget process; very powerful).

How are Texas judges selected?

All judges are elected by the public. Texas has a bifurcated supreme court system: one for civil, one for criminal appeals.

How does Texas raise revenue?

Mostly via sales tax; local governments use property taxes. No state income tax (constitutionally prohibited in 2019).

Consequence of the restrictive Texas Constitution?

Reduced state revenue and limited ability to provide expensive public services.