Studied by 78 people
empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes
functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most scientists agree with (1) but not with (2)
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of generic and environmental influences on behavior
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and culture affect our behavior and thinking
testing effect
counseling psychology
area of psychology that uses a broad range of culturally-informed and culturally-sensitive practices to help people improve their well-being, prevent and alleviate distress and maladjustment, resolve crises, and increase their ability to function better in their lives.
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of individuals' characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
industrial organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments (for example prescription drugs) as well as psychological treatment
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the "I knew it all along phenomenon"
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's result
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
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