AP Psychology Unit 2

Perception

• how we make sense of what our senses pick up

• mix of bottom-up and top-down processing

• shaped by mental shortcuts (schemas), what we expect to see (perceptual sets), and outside factors like context and culture

Bottom-up processing

• relies on sensory receptors detecting stimuli

• focused on details and individual elements

• processes raw sensory data

Top-down processing

• draws on prior knowledge and expectations

• uses context and memory

• helps interpret ambiguous information

Schemas

• organized patterns or frameworks of thought that help us categorize and interpret information

• develop through experience and learning

Perceptual Sets

• influence how we interpret sensory info by creating expectations about what we will perceive

• can lead to selective attention, result in misinterpretation of stimuli, or be influenced by motivation and emotion

External factors in perceptions

• cultural influences

• personal experiences

Gestalt Principles of Perception

• emphasizes that we perceive whole patterns rather than individual elements

• explain how we organize visual info into meaningful patterns

• ex) proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, closure, figure-ground

Attention in Perception

• filter that helps us focus on relevant info while ignoring distractions

• selective attention: focusing on specific stimuli

• divided attention: processing multiple inputs

• sustained attention: maintaining focus over time

• attention limitations lead to change blindness (missing big changes in a scene) and inattentional blindness (not seeing the obvious because we’re focused elsewhere)

Binocular Depth Cues

• both eyes working together, giving info about distance and spatial relationships

• retinal disparity: difference in images between eyes

• convergence: inward turning of eyes for close objects

Monocular Depth Cues

• perceive depth using just one eye

• important for creating depth in 2D representations like paintings

• relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, interposition or objects in front blocking objects behind

Visual Perceptual Constancies

• help us to maintain stable perceptions despite changing sensory input (recognize and navigate environment effectively)

• size constancy, shape constancy, and brightness constancy

Perception of Apparent Movement

• perception of movement occurs when viewing static images or discrete stimuli

• 1) Stroboscopic movement - created by rapid succession of images (flipbooks, film)

• 2) Phi phenomenon - illusion of movement between stationary stimuli (single object moving between flashing lights)

Cocktail Party Effect

• people can selectively attend to specific information, such as hearing their name, in a noisy or distracting environment

• selective attention

Concepts

• fundamental building blocks that allow us to categorize and make sense of the world

• organize info efficiently and recognize patterns in our enviornment

• mental representations that define categories of objects, ideas, or experiences

• shared features that help us identify members of a category

• flexibility to accommodate variations within categories

Prototypes

• ideal or most typical examples of concepts

• clearest examples of category membership

• help us identify and classify new info quickly

• influence our expectations and judgements about category members

Schema Formation and Modification

• Schema - complex mental framework that organize our knowledge and guide our understanding

• Assimilation - incorporating new info into existing schemas

• Accommodation - we encounter info that doesn’t fit our existing schemas; modify schemas to incorporate new info/adjust understanding to match reality

Algorithms for problem-solving

• systematic problem solving approaches help us find solutions through careful analysis and structured thinking

• step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution if followed correctly, work well for well-defined problems, may require significant time and resources

Heuristics

• mental shortcuts help us make quick decisions BUT can lead to systematic errors

• Availability: judging likelihood based on easily remembered examples

• Representativeness: making judgments based on similarity to prototypes

• Anchoring: relying too heavily on initial information

Influences on Decision Making

• mental set and functional fixedness

• priming effects from recent experiences

• framing of information and choices

• environmental or contextual factors

Cognitive Biases in Decisions

• confirmation bias: info that supports existing beliefs

• anchoring bias: over relying on first pieces of info

• hindsight bias: overestimating ability to predict past events

• gambler’s fallacy: misunderstanding random events

• sunk-cost fallacy: continuing to invest in something just because we’ve already put time into it

• overconfidence bias: overestimating how good we are at something

Executive Functions for Behavior

• higher order cognitive processes that help us regulate behavior and achieve goals

• Core executive functions:

  • working memory (holding and manipulating info in our minds)

  • cognitive flexibility (adapting to new situations)

  • inhibitory control (resisting impulses)

• help with planning & organizing, time management, self monitoring, and emotional regulation

Creative Process

1) Preparation - gathering relative info

2) Incubation - letting ideas develop in background

3) Illumination - “aha” moment

4) Verification - testing and refining ideas

Creativity Blocks

• Functional fixedness - getting stuck on one use for an object

• Self-censorship - criticizing our own ideas too harshly

• Fear of failure

• Limited perspective

Differentiation of Memory Types

• Explicit - things we consciously remember

  • episodic memory: personal experiences

  • semantic memory: general knowledge and facts

• Implicit - things we remember without thinking about

  • procedural memory for learned skills

  • conditioning and priming effects

Long-term Potentiation

• Memory gets wired into our brains at a cellular level

• Neurons repeatedly fire together, strengthening their connections

Working Memory Model

• working memory describes how we temporarily store and manipulate information

• controlled by central executive

• phonological loop for verbal info

• visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial data

• episodic buffer that integrates info from multiple sources

Multi-store Model

• info flows through three distinct memory stores, each with specific characteristics and functions

  • sensory memory - raw sensory input briefly; iconic and echoic memory; fractions of a second

  • short term memory - capacity of 7 items; duration of 20/30 sec without rehearsal

  • long-term memory - unlimited; lifetime duration; multiple types of info storage

Types of Processing

• how info moves through memory storage

• automatic processing - requires minimal attention

• effortful processing - demands conscious focus

Levels of Processing

1) Structural (physical features, short-lived memories)

2) Phonemic (sound patterns, moderately strong memories)

3) Semantic (meaning and associations, strongest memories)

Encoding

• first step to memory formation

• better you encode, easier to retrieve

• visual, acoustic, and semantic

Encoding Tips

• mnemonic devices

• chunking and categorization

• spacing effect (allows for memory consolidation)

Serial Position Effect in Encoding

• serial position effect reveals important patterns in how we remember sequences of info

• primacy effect - remembering first things in a list better

• recency effect - better recall of items at the end

Types of Long Term Memory

• Declarative (explicit) memory

  • semantic memory for facts

  • episodic memory for events

• Nondeclarative (implicit) memory

  • procedural memory

  • priming effects

Rehearsal Techniques for Retention

1) Maintenance Rehearsal - simple repetition; keeps info in short-term memory

2) Elaborative Rehearsal - created deeper connections; links new info to existing knowledge

Superior Autobiographical Memory

• capacity of human brain to store and recall personal experiences

• influenced by personal significance of event, emotional intensity, frequency of recall, and self-reference effect

Memory Storage Impairments

• Retrograde: loss of pre-existing memories

• Anterograde: inability to form new memories

• Infantile Amnesia: adults can’t recall events before ages 3-4 due to brain development and language acquisition

Memory Retrieval Process

• recall vs recognition

• context-dependent memory - we remember better when our surroundings match those present during learning

• mood-congruent memory - recall events better in similar emotional state

• state-dependent learning - physical conditions affecting memory access

Forgetting Curve

• we forget 70% of new info in 24 hours

• memories that make it past the first day stick around longer

• rate of forgetting slows down after initial drop

Retrieval Difficulties

• proactive interference: past learning interferes with new learning

• retroactive interference: new learning interferes with old learning

• encoding failure, tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, storage decay (memories fade over time)

Repression

• mind blocks access to traumatic memories or information

• completely forgetting traumatic events, having gaps in memory during stressful periods, remembering events differently than occured, etc.

• highly debated by psychologists

Misinformation Effect

• memories can be easily altered

• new info can be incorporated into existing memories

• details can be changed without awareness

• confidence in false memories can be strong

Source Amnesia

• remember content but forget where we learned it

• gaps in memory are filled automatically (constructive memory)

• imagination can become mixed with real memories

Historical vs. Modern Perspectives

• scientific approaches to studying intelligence emerged in 19th century

• shift from subjective assessments to standardized testing

• growing recognition of cultural and environmental influences on intelligence

• modern perspectives consider multiple forms of intelligence, role of emotional and social intelligence, and environmental factors influencing intellectual development

Spearman’s Central Intelligence Theory (G Factor)

• one general intelligence influences performance across all mental tasks

• people good at one mental challenge perform well on different ones too

Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

• no single ability but rather eight distinct and independent capacities

• linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal (philosophy/spiritual), naturalistic

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

• “middle-ground” approach

• three interconnected abilities: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

• explains why some people excel academically but struggle in real-world situations, and vice versa

Evolution of IQ Tests

• current testing approach emphasize:

  • standardized administration procedures

  • age-based normative comparison

  • multiple cognitive domains

  • cultural sensitivity

Psychometric Principles

• standardization: administering tests with consistent procedures, environments, and scoring protocols

• validity: does a test measure what it claims to?

  • construct, predictive, content, concurrent

• reliability: consistency of measurement

Socio-Culturally Responsive Assessments

• importance of cultural context in assessment outcomes

• environmental factors impact test performance

• language differences and varying cultural experiences affect familiarity with test content

• stereotype threat, test anxiety, cultural familiarity

• culturally responsive assessment practices attempt to mitigate these influences

Flynn Effect

• document rise in intelligence scores across generations

• demonstrates how intelligence measures reflect broader societal change rather than biological evolution

• reasons include nutrition, better education access, and increased environmental complexity

Group Differences in IQ Scores

• social influences create uneven developmental opportunities

• testing considerations further complicate interpretation of group differences

Misuse of Intelligence Scores

• resulted in societal harm, highlighting ethical responsibility that accompanies cognitive assessment

• intelligence testing has been employed to justify discrimination

• restricting educational opportunities, affecting immigration policies, and creating barriers in employment decisions

Achievement and Aptitude Tests

• Achievement - what students have learned through educational experiences (AP Exam)

• Aptitude - designed to predict future performance by assessing general abilities thought to underlie learning potential

  • reasoning, problem-solving, and info processing

Fixed vs. Growth Mindset

• Growth - promotes resilience and learning; embraces challenges as opportunities for growth- learning from failures

• Fixed - limit achievement potential; avoiding challenges that might reveal inadequacies; giving up easily; viewing effort as fruitless